Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Cupcakes

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Cupcake Chemistry

Episode #18

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Amelie Bass and I am your host for episode #18 called Cupcake Chemistry. Today I will be discussing how the ingredients of a cupcake form the magical dessert we all know and love.

Segment 1: Introduction to Cupcakes

Cupcakes: the delicious dessert baked for a celebration or eaten as a late-night snack. But like what goes into the cupcake to give it a moist and fluffy cake?

I love baking a variety of treats but cupcakes are always a classic.

Ok, let’s start with the key ingredients of any good cupcake:

Flour
Butter
Sugar
Eggs
Vanilla
Leaveners, like baking powder and baking soda
Dairy, like sour cream and milk
And of course a good frosting and decorations

In this episode we will be discussing the chemistry behind 2 of these ingredients, starting with….

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Baking Powder

Leaveners (like the thing that gives the cupcake a light fluffy texture) are probably the most important ingredient in a cupcake. It is used to help the cupcake rise, giving it a light and fluffy texture.

So what is a leavener, like what is the ingredient that is doing the rising. Baking soda and baking powder are what recipes will commonly call for.

Now some will call for both of these leaveners. But wait, why is that, why do I need 2? Hold onto that idea later and we will come back to it later. Let's first analyze what these two substances even are.

Baking soda

Sodium bicarbonate is a base, used to neutralize any acidic components (chocolate or citrus) in the batter
When the cupcakes are baked, the baking soda or NaHCO3 in the batter turns into sodium carbonate, water, and carbon dioxide
The carbon dioxide which is released in bubbles, causing the batter to rise.

Baking powder

A dry mixture that contains baking soda, acid salts, and cornstarch
The baking soda reacts with the acid salts in the powder only when the mixture is moistened
The cornstarch is a drying agent used to prevent the acid and baking soda reaction from occurring.

So now that we better understand the substances we are talking about, why would a recipe call for both baking soda and baking powder?

In the reaction with baking soda (a base with a pH of 8.5) one of the products is sodium carbonate (an even stronger base with a pH of 11.5) This will cause the entire mixture to be too basic resulting in a bad cupcake.

That cupcake is not gonna sit well with whoever eats it.

So we use a larger amount of baking powder to do the heavy lifting, acting as the rising agent to give us our lovely fluffy cupcake, and then use a smaller amount of baking soda to neutralize any other acids in the batter. This is a good cupcake.

Segment 3: The Chemistry Behind Flour

So, when you think of baking the first ingredient almost anyone will think of is flour. All-purpose flour for all my baking purposes, but is that the best type of flour? Wait, hold on. Did I just say “type of flour”, as in there are other types of flour? YES! Now don’t stress all-purpose flour is still good for almost anything you are trying to make, however, to achieve optimal results, there are other options for the type of flour you use.

But what’s the difference? Isn’t all flour the same?

The differences between types of flour like: cake flour, all-purpose flour, bread flour ect… is the level of protein in the flour.

Protein? Flour has protein? Yes it does, and it gives the cupcake (or whatever your baking) its texture.

Flour is made from wheat which contains 2 types of protein: glutenin and gliadin. When water is added these 2 protein link together and form gluten. Gliadin gives it the abilitity to stretch and glutenin gives it the ability to snap back.

The strength of gluten is what makes flour the structural component of cupcakes. Gluten is a string of amino acids, 35% of which being Glutamines. Glutamine forms numerous inter-chain hydrogen bonds with other amino acids. Individual, these bonds are weak, but in combination they are very strong, contributing to the high cohesiveness of gluten. Also, the numerous hydrophobic (meaning the repulsion of water) interactions result in strong cohesion in the batter.

Flours with a higher protein content, means its has more “gluten-forming potential”, therefore the flour is “stronger”.

Soo, how does this relate to cupcakes? Cupcakes don’t stretch and snap. True. So the flour used to make cupcakes, Cake Flour: has a protein percentage of 10%. This is considered low-protein, giving the cupcake it’s soft texture.

The commonly used, all-purpose flour: has a protein percentage of 11.7% which sits in a comfortable middle level. This is usable and won't result in a drastic change in texture, but the cake flour is better.

Segment 4: Personal Connections

So there we have it, the chemistry of a cupcake.

I love cupcakes.

I think my favorite flavor to make would be chocolate of strawberry. My favorite part of making cupcakes is piping decorations on top. Whether it’s a simple flower or more detailed decorations, I always have fun.

The main reason I chose to do this topic was to have an excuse to bake cupcakes and I look forward to how they turn out.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Gasoline

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Gasoline

Episode #17

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Adithya Shrikanth and I am your host for episode 1 called Today I/we will be discussing the chemistry of Gasoline.

Segment 1: Introduction to Gasoline

Gasoline how it works are what are the differences between regular and premium and the difference between the gasoline in car and jets

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Gasoline

The chemical composition of gasoline is C8H18 and it appears as a yellowish liquid. The problem is that gasoline is a liquid and for an engine of any vehicle to work it needs fuel. The wondrous thing about gasoline is that is vaporizes at low temperatures so the engine does not have to heat up much for the gasoline to turn into fuel. Gasoline is a petroleum-based compound so when the engine is running, the gasoline reacts with the air and a combustion reaction occurs turing the gasoline into a gas. To understand gasoline further we must know how the gasoline reacts with the engine. Despite the type of engines used, all of them use pistons. When the gasoline combusts, the explosion pushes the piston down which transfers energy to the crankshaft and so one eventually leading to a running car. How we know how gasoline works but what about the differences between gasoline. At the gas station we see two options, premium and regular and normally we use regular gasoline due to its price but why do these options exist. Well the main difference between regular and premium is the ocatnce level. Premium gasoline has a higher octane level. The level of octane in gasoline indicated the likelihood of improper engine combustion which is known as engine knock. The higher octane concentration in premium gasoline causes a lower likelihood of engine knock happening, this is why high premium gasoline is used in high-performance cars. Jets and cars both use fuel but what is the difference between them. Both aviation fuel and regular fuel use hydrocarbons but the difference is the type of hydrocarbons each fule uses. The hydocarbns that make up normal gasoline contain 7 to 11 carbon atoms attached to hydrogen atoms, the ones that make up Avatioan fuel contain 12-15 carbon atoms so jet fuel is made up of mostly kerosene. In theory jet fuel can be used in cars but car fuel cannot make a jet run because the conditions that a jet goes through are very different as compared to a car. At the hights that a jet travels, the temprature becomes -40 Celcius so normal gasoline would freeze at those temperatures so the combustion reactions would stop. Since jet fuel is mostly kerosene it has a low freezing point so that is why jet fuel and gasoline are different.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

We all drive cars and have been in cars as long as we can remember. One of the converstones of driving a car is gasoline. We pull up to the gas station and see options for gasoline and we wonder what they all mean. We also wonder how a liquid can help a car or plane run.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.chemistryislife.com/the-chemistry-of-gasoline-engines

https://www.chicagotoyota.com/premium-vs-regular-gasoline.htm

https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/whats-the-difference-between-jet-fuel-and-gasoline

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Steroids

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is dongxuan and I am your host for episode #16 called . chemistry in steroids Today I/we will be discussing the structure and some basic information about the steriods

The first therapeutic use of steroids occurred in the 18th century when English physician William Withering used digitalis, a compound extracted from the leaves of the common foxglove, to treat edema.

steroid: any of a class of natural or synthetic organic compounds characterized by a molecular structure of 17 carbon atoms arranged in four rings.

Today I’m gonna talk about 6 types of steroids. I’m gonna talking about their structure and their functions.

Cortisol plays an important role in the stress response. Maintaining an adequate balance of cortisol is essential for health.

In many species, including amphibians, reptiles, rodents and birds, corticosterone is a main glucocorticoid involved in regulation of energy, immune reactions, and stress responses.

Aldosterone A steroid hormone made by the adrenal cortex (the outer layer of the adrenal gland). It helps control the balance of water and salts in the kidney by keeping sodium in and releasing potassium from the body.

Progesterone is an endogenous steroid hormone that is commonly produced by the adrenal cortex as well as the gonads, which consist of the ovaries and the testes. Progesterone is also secreted by the ovarian corpus luteum during the first ten weeks of pregnancy, followed by the placenta in the later phase of pregnancy.

Oestradiol is a steroid hormone with a molecular weight of 272. It is secreted mainly by the ovary, but small amounts are produced by the adrenals and testis, so that in males and in post menopausal females' Oestradiol is always present at low concentrations.

Testosterone is the primary male hormone responsible for regulating sex differentiation, producing male sex characteristics, spermatogenesis, and fertility.

Personal connection:

Several weeks ago, I’m just doing a regular blood test, and the doctor said my platelets are low, and it’s getting lower. I have to go to the doctor. After the examination, the doctor told me that my immune system recognizes that my platelets are harmful and is destroying my platelets. So the doctor gave me decadron, that’s corticosterone. that’s a medicine that will suppress the immune system so it won’t destroy more platelets. SInce the decadron has many side effects. It cause me headaches, muscle pain, and stomach pain. So I decided to do some research about steroids. Because it really cause a lot of trouble to me. That’s the main reason that I choose this topic. That’s my connection with the steroids.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources

https://www.britannica.com/science/steroid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steroid

Chemistry of Catalytic Converters

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Catalytic Converters

Episode #15

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Matthew Nguyen and I am your host for episode 15 called Fumes to Fresh Air. Today I will be discussing the chemistry of catalytic converters.

Segment 1: Introduction to Catalytic Converters

General Information on Catalytic Converters

Used to reduce emissions from car engines
Used in exhaust systems to remove harmless byproducts from internal combustion engines
Removes nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons and turns them into carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen gas
Converts 98% of the harmful emissions to less harmful gasses
Most stolen parts of the car because it has valuable materials like platinum, rhodium, and palladium which can sell for a lot of money
No more than 4-9 grams of these precious metals are used in a single converter
Located between the muffler and the engine
Composed of metal housing with a ceramic honeycomb-like interior with insulating layers

To begin, I’ll first dive into what specifically a catalytic converter is and what its function is for those who don’t know
A catalytic converter filters out harmful emissions released by a vehicle.
It is a metal square box containing a ceramic honeycomb interior, located on the underside of the car between the engine and muffler with insulating layers composed of precious metals like platinum, rhodium, and palladium.
Because these metals are extremely valuable, they make the converter one of the most frequently stolen items in a car. Put a pin in that idea, we’ll come back to it later.
Due to the elements of palladium, platinum, and rhodium, a single converter can filter 98% of harmful emissions like nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons into harmless gasses of carbon dioxide and nitrogen.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Catalytic Converters

The Chemistry part of Catalytic Converters

One reduction and two oxidation reactions occur inside a catalytic converter
Nitrogen oxide reduces into elemental nitrogen and oxygen
Carbon monoxide oxidized into carbon dioxide
Hydrocarbons are oxidized into carbon dioxide and water
Two systems running in catalytic converters “rich” and “lean”
It runs lean resulting in the favoring of oxidation of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons
It runs rich resulting in the favoring of the reduction of nitrogen oxide into elemental nitrogen and oxygen
If NO is not converted into less harmful emissions, it can create smog or acid rain
Catalysts like platinum, rhodium, and palladium are used to lower the activation energy to drive the reaction forward

Let's pause here and talk about some of the chemistry at work. Surprisingly, catalytic converters have many chemical processes.
When a car combusts in the presence of oxygen and gasoline, it releases nitrogen gas (N2) as a harmless byproduct; however, when it bonds with oxygen, it creates nitrogen oxides which are extremely harmful to the environment. If these nitrogen oxides are not filtered out, it can create smog or even acid rain.
That's when catalytic converters come into play which contain no more than 4-9 grams of valuable metals like platinum, rhodium, and palladium.
What makes these metals different from others is that they are good at resisting oxidation, corrosion, and acid allowing them to withstand all of the chemicals released by an internal combustion engine.
Furthermore, these metals function as catalysts within a catalytic converter. These catalysts reduce the activation energy needed for a reaction to occur, allowing it to proceed at a faster rate. Furthermore, the honeycomb structure within a converter allows for a large amount of surface area so that multiple reactions occur rapidly and efficiently.
Inside a catalytic converter, a redox reaction occurs simultaneously: called oxidation and reduction reactions. In an oxidation reaction, electrons are lost whereas in a reduction reaction, electrons are gained. Each metal is responsible for either oxidizing or reducing carbon or nitrogen. For example, the first stage of the reaction involves platinum and rhodium which both take part in reduction reactions that reduce nitrogen oxides in the exhaust. They can do this by removing nitrogen atoms from nitrogen oxide or nitrogen dioxide molecules, freeing up oxygen atoms. Once the catalysts have finished the reaction, the nitrogen atoms react with each other creating nitrogen gas which is harmless to the environment. The byproducts are nitrogen and oxygen gas.
Similarly, the second stage of the reaction involves platinum and palladium which oxidize carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, turning them both into carbon dioxide and water.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Let's return to the idea of how catalytic converters get stolen pretty often.
Well… a couple of years ago, after coming home from a family trip, I remember my dad turning on our car after dropping it off in a secluded lot for several weeks. The car soon became extremely loud after ignition and it turns out that the catalytic converter on our car was stolen.
The reason for this was merely because of the precious metals within the converter that made it a prime target for thieves.
The purpose of these metals has remained a curious phenomenon with me, but taking AP Chem has allowed me to understand the chemistry and function of the metals. This has prompted me to want to create a podcast episode about how harmful emissions are reduced and the chemistry behind catalytic converters.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-run podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/07%3A_Case_Studies-_Kinetics/7.01%3A_Catalytic_Converters

https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/stem-explained/catalytic-converters

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/catalytic-converter

https://www.bnl.gov/newsroom/news.php?a=110282#:~:text=%22In%20a%20catalytic%20converter%2C%20ceria,nitrogen%20gas%2C%22%20Rodriguez%20said.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Agent Orange

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

The History & Chemistry of Agent Orange

Episode #14

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Zoey and I am your host for episode #14 called The History & Chemistry of Agent Orange. Today I will be discussing The notorious herbicides used during the Vietnam War, its composition, and its impact.

Segment 1: Introduction to Agent Orange

We’ll first start by introducing the herbicide, agent orange and its history and use during the Vietnam War.

Agent Orange was a mix of two herbicides which was sprayed in high concentrations during the Vietnam War by the U.S. Military. The name came from the orange stripe that was found on the containers of this chemical.
Agent Orange, and other herbicides known as the “rainbow herbicides,” were part of a large operation, operation Ranch Hand, which aimed to defoliate lots of land through spraying chemical herbicides from aircrafts. Agent Orange was the most used herbicide during the Vietnam War.
The chemical was sprayed in up to 20 times higher concentration than suggested for killing plants normally by manufacturers. This caused severe damage to millions of acres of forest, affected three million Vietnamese people with disease and defects, including children who were not alive during the war, and remained in soil for decades and disturbing the food sources.
Agent Orange was the most commonly used chemical during the war to defoliate the forests and farmland of Vietnam and its neighboring countries Laos and Cambodia. This was for many reasons.
One, this took away cover from the Viet Cong, who were guerilla fighters dependent on the cover provided by Vietnam’s thick forests.
The destruction of farmland also caused many of the viet cong to be unable to sustain themselves rurally, which starved them or forced them to move closer to sustain themselves. This would take away rural nourishment support for the Viet Cong during the war, which were their main food sources.
Agent Orange was eventually banned in 1971 by the United States, and remaining stocks were destroyed on a remote island.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Agent Orange

Now we’re going to talk about the chemistry behind Agent Orange, and how it impacted the environment and people involved in the Vietnam War. We will first talk about the composition of Agent Orange, then why this chemical mixture caused so much damage to the environment and people.

Agent Orange is a 1:1 mixture of two herbicides which are (2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid, or 2,4-D and 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, or 2,4,5-T.
The herbicides were originally developed in the 1940s, but only used domestically until after WWII, and came to prominence as chemical warfare weapons in the Vietnam War.
2,4-D, in its pure acid form, is not soluble in water due to its strong solute-solute polar bonds, which cannot be broken by water to form weaker solute-solvent bonds.
Therefore, other forms of the acid, such as in salts or esters, are used instead for water solubility. This can be seen in common forms of the herbicide by itself in use today.
However, 2,4,5-T is almost completely not soluble in water, also due to its strong polar bonds, so Agent Orange was often dissolved in diesel fuel or other organic solvents, which can create stronger solute-solvent bonds with 2,4,5-T than water.
Agent Orange, and its component 2,4,5-T was phased out after the 1970s due to toxicity concerns, however 2,4-D is still used to this day
2,4,5-T and 2,4-D belonged to a class of selective herbicides known as synthetic auxins, which changed growth hormones in broadleaf plants and effectively killed them in high concentrations.
2,4,5-T was phased out because the production of 2,4,5-T would lead to a contaminant byproduct, known as Tetrachloro Dioxin, TCDD, or simply dioxin for the general public.
As you can see in the show notes figure 1, the process of synthesizing 2,4,5-T by heating 2,4,5-Trichlorophenol, which is an organochlorine with the chemical formula C₆H₃Cl₃O, with a base NaOH in CH3OH or water under high pressure will produce 2,4,5-T at 140 degrees celsius. However, a slightly higher temperature of 160 degrees C will cause the production of TCDD.
Figure 1
This is because of the activation energy to start these reactions. The activation energy to start the synthesis of 2,4,5-T is lower than the activation energy to start the synthesis of TCDD, so with extremely controlled temperatures it is possible to synthesize 2,4,5-T without synthesizing dioxin by not giving it enough activation energy.
However, since the difference in temperature is so small and hard to fully control, TCDD was often produced as a side product when synthesizing 2,4,5-T.
Although TCDD was produced in trace amounts, it still caused lots of damage. It’s attributed to as the cause for many forms of cancer encountered in Vietnam veterans, such as Hodgkin’s lymphoma. It’s also believed to be the cause of many birth defects found in children of Vietnam after the war
As previously mentioned, since Agent Orange was sprayed on farmland and lasted for a long time, the contamination of TCDD in food grown from them may be a reason why many people were affected by the toxin.
Agent Orange also had a large impact on the environment, as many countries have condemned its use as a form of “ecocide” because of the damage done to the environment. The US and Vietnamese governments worked together to cleanse the land of Agent Orange, but the recovery of the forests has been hard.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

I wanted to talk about this topic because it’s a commonly overlooked event in history. This can be seen because wars that the U.S. didn’t win, such as the Vietnam war, despite its important impact on the United States, are often overlooked when history is taught to many Americans. In addition, the U.S. committed many war crimes or similar atrocities to other parts of the world, which this episode aimed to shine a light on. I hope you have learned something from this episode, be it history or chemistry. If this episode sparked an interest in you for chemical warfare during the Vietnam War, I highly recommend doing a bit of learning on other rainbow herbicides and napalm as well.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Radiation Poisoning

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Radiation Poisoning

Episode #13

Welcome to Chemistry Connections. My name is Fox Ueng-McHale, and I am your host for episode #13, the Chemistry of Radiation Poisoning. Today, I will be discussing several chemical processes related to the effects of radiation exposure.

Segment 1: Introduction to Radiation Poisoning

Since the advent of the hydrogen bomb during the Second World War, radiation has quickly captured public attention. From medical uses to paint forgery detection, in one form or another radiation can be found in almost every industry. But uncontrolled, radiation can kill. And it’s this destructive potential that has dominated the public’s perception of radiation.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Radiation Poisoning

But what is radiation? In chemistry, radioactivity is the spontaneous breakdown of an atom's nucleus, emitting particles or waves. This is caused by chemical reactions. Here, atoms become more stable by participating in a transfer of electrons or by sharing electrons with other atoms. In nuclear reactions, it is the nucleus of the atom that gains stability by undergoing a change of some kind.

This occurs as unstable isotopes shed. This radioactive decay is a reaction where a nucleus spontaneously disintegrates into a slightly lighter nucleus, emitting particles, energy, or both. One of the most important ways of measuring radioactive decay is the half life. This is the interval of time required for one-half of the atomic nuclei of a radioactive sample to decay, calculated with the half-life formula. Shedding particles include alpha and beta radiation, as well as shedding protons or neutrons.

The effects of radiation are horrifying, but surprisingly straightforward from a chemical perspective. Radiation poisoning comes in two classes: particulate and electromagnetic. Particulate ionizing radiation include alpha particles, beta particles, neutrons, and positrons; gamma rays and X rays are forms of electromagnetic ionizing radiation.

Ionization is the cause of the toxic effects of ionizing radiation. Ionization of tissues creates highly reactive compounds. Radiation generates H2O+ and H2O- ions. In turn, these create H and OH radicals. Hydrogen and hydroxide ions are extremely reactive, causing massive biological damage, targeting DNA and proteins. Especially, ionizing radiation quickly kills rapidly dividing cells, targeting immature blood cells in bone marrow, cells lining the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract, and cells in the lower layers of the epidermis and in hair follicles. Ionizing radiation is the most harmful because it can ionize molecules or break chemical bonds, which damage the molecule and causes malfunctions in cell processes. It can also create reactive hydroxyl radicals that damage biological molecules and disrupt physiological processes.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Moving into the future, it will be increasingly important to know how to combat radiation poisoning, especially as more nuclear power plants are commissioned in the future. In the event of a large-scale meltdown, having information about the effects of radiation will be crucial to planning a response.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-run podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Bread

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Bread

Episode 12

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Maggie Maclean and Lilla Antal and I am your host for episode 12 called Chemistry of Bread. Today I/we will be discussing the chemistry involved in the making of bread.

Segment 1: Introduction to Breadmaking

The first bread was made around 12,000 years ago and was created by coarsely crushed grain mixed with water, with the resulting dough probably laid on heated stones and baked by covering it with hot ashes. At the time, we can imagine it was the tastiest bread out there. However, there is such a wide variety of different types of bread now. Whether it's sourdough, bagels, croissants, whole grain, Irish soda bread, English muffins, biscuits, pumpernickel, banana bread, or pizza dough it is found in all parts of life. Even people intolerant to these ingredients can enjoy a substitute made with gluten-free dough.

Maggie: My personal favorite is the classic Irish soda bread with gluten-free wheat of course toasted with raspberry jam and butter. This is the bread my parents made me growing up to connect me to my heritage.
Lilla: You know I like a good whole grain rye bread toasted with eggs and cheese.
Unison: Comment down below what YOUR favorite bread is, and while you’re down there smash that like button!!!

Getting back on track… By the late nineteenth century, enzymes in the form of malt were being added to flour and dough to control and aid the breadmaking process in emerging commercial bakeries. However, over time this practice was abandoned as new chemical additives and processing aids became available. Let’s pause here and look at some of the chemistry at work.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Breadmaking

Lilla: The yeast in bread contains enzymes that can break down the starch in the flour into sugars. Yeast produces the enzyme maltase to break maltose into glucose molecules that it can ferment once the starch has been broken down into these simple sugars, other enzymes in yeast act upon simple sugars to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide in the bread-making step called fermentation.

Maggie: The enzymes in yeast are natural catalysts. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction or lowers the temperature or pressure needed to start one, without itself being consumed during the reaction, in bread making the catalysts accelerate the fermentation of bread. Fermentation is the process where the dough produces and retains carbon dioxide in the form of microscopic air pockets. It rises as a result of this. Catalysts break down complex carbohydrates into sugar which yeast can feed off of. With sugars fueling yeast, it releases CO2 which makes bread rise. An you know I like a fluffy bread.

Lilla: When reactions happen, there energy is needed to break the bonds in the reactants, this is called activation energy. If activation energy is high, reactions are slow because only a few particles will have enough energy to collide. In order for a chemical reaction to occur enough particles have the required energy to allow the reaction to proceed. When the activation energy is high there are less particles that have the energy necessary for the reaction.

Maggie: If activation energy is low however, reactions are faster because more particles have enough of the required activation energy. The reaction has more energy, allowing the particles to move faster. This is where catalysts, like enzymes, come in because the enzymes lower the activation energy allowing for the reaction to occur at a faster rate. Which allows for the yeast in the bread, which contains enzymes, to grows resulting in the formation of bread.

Maggie: Now onto carbon dioxide… though it can kill you it helps in making a great treat. Carbon dioxide is released once the bread is heated causing the bread to rise. In bread making the yeast organisms release carbon dioxide, CO2, as they feed off sugars. As the dough is proofed in a warm environment carbon dioxide is formed. This is why the volume of the dough increases. The carbon dioxide expands and moves through the dough of the bread as it is baked in the oven. This results in a loaf of bread with height.

Lilla: Carbon dioxide is a gas. A gas is one of the three fundamental states of matter that is in a gaseous or vaporous state. The rate at which gas particles move is determined by the temperature of the environment they are in. As the bread heats up in the oven the carbon dioxide gas starts to move faster. This faster movement of gases in the bread is what causes the bread to rise and maintain a higher volume. As the gas particles speed up they create more collisions with the inside surface of the bubbles in the bread. The CO2 collisions allow the bread to maintain a light and fluffy texture as it forms pockets of gas.

Maggie: Now back to where this whole thing began…we chose to study the chemistry of bread because I have celiac disease. Due to having celiac, I cannot have any products containing wheat, barley, oats, malt, or rye so I cannot eat any bread products. We thought it would be funny to study bread considering I cannot consume it. Now we are going to be doing ASMR and taste tests of our homemade gluten-free bread.

*BREAD ASMR TASTE TEST*

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Now back to where this whole thing began…we chose to study the chemistry of bread because I have celiac disease. Due to having celiac, I cannot have any products containing wheat, barley, oats, malt, or rye so I cannot eat any bread products. We thought it would be funny to study bread considering I cannot consume it. Now we are going to be doing ASMR and taste tests of our homemade gluten-free bread.

Before our traste test lets real quick say a big…thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-run podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainscatalysts

https://www.exploratorium.edu/explore/cooking/bread-science#:~:text=Once%20reactivated%2C%20yeast%20begins%20feeding,aromas%20we%20associate%20with%20bread.

https://www.ifst.org/lovefoodlovescience/resources/raising-agents-biological-fermentation#:~:text=During%20fermentation%2C%20carbon%20dioxide%20is,during%20the%20bread%20baking%20process.

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Chemistry of Ice Hockey

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Episode Title: The Chemistry of Ice Hockey

Episode #11

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Lucy and Jack and we are your hosts for episode 11 called The Chemistry of Ice Hockey.

Segment 1: Introduction to Ice Hockey

Ice hockey is one of the greatest sports to both play and watch. It features extremely fast-paced and physical gameplay because it's played on ice. Hockey originated in Canada during the early 1800s and comes from the French word “hocquet” meaning stick. The game involves one goalie and five other players who skate around trying to score goals. One of the greatest sporting achievements ever, The Miracle on Ice, was an Olympic ice hockey game when the underdog US men’s team beat the top seed USSR team. This illustrates the elusive nature of hockey and the unpredictability surrounding it drawing fans from all around the globe.

Segment 2: Personal Connections

Both of us adore sports. Hockey has been a key aspect of my childhood and a way I have connected with my family. And I hope to become a professional sports commentator, so it was only natural for both of us to research the chemistry and science behind hockey.

Segment 3: The Chemistry Behind Ice Hockey

Lets pause here to talk about some chemistry at work. We will be covering the most important aspect of hockey, the ice (but put a pin in that)! First, though, we will discuss the pucks that slide across the ice.

Pucks are made out of vulcanized rubber. Vulcanized rubber is used to create o-rings, tires, and much more. Its unique properties make it a useful tool in not just ice hockey. Before the process of vulcanization was developed rubber was susceptible to changes in temperature, too hot and the rubber would quickly melt, too cold and the rubber would become extremely brittle. This would be ineffective as an ice hockey puck because it is a sport played in the cold on ice, it would lose all of its strong yet elastic properties. Vulcanization is a process that involves heating rubber and combining it with sulfur to improve its elasticity and strength.

Vulcanization works by forming chemical cross-links or covalent bonds (attractive force between nonmetal atoms) between long isoprene molecules (a natural rubber monomer aka a carbon chain) using sulfur. This when diagramed looks like long carbon chains parallel to each other, connected by perpendicular bonds with sulfur. This forms a net-like structure which contributes to the hockey puck’s key characteristics (resistance to extreme temperatures and strength). This allowed Alexander Riazantsev, from the KHL (Russian pro league) to hit a slap shot at 114.27 MPH.

Maybe even more important to hockey than pucks is ice. What defines hockey from all other sports (making it cooler, better, and more fun) is that it is played on ice. This contributes to super-fast gameplay and cool skates.

Ice, as we all know, is made of water. The intermolecular forces (IMFs) are attractive forces between particles. The IMFs between water molecules are known as hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonds form when hydrogen atoms in a molecule bond with nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine in another molecule. It is a very strong bond. The strongest, even. As a result, it requires a lot of energy to break these bonds. In our case, we mean melting the ice (solid to liquid). Hydrogen bonds aren’t the only IMFs between water molecules; London dispersion forces (LDFs) exist between all particles, but are much weaker and aren’t as strong as the hydrogen bonds between water molecules.

The best part about ice (hockey) is the Zamboni. The Zamboni is a big machine that comes out in between periods during the intermission to clean and smooth the ice (and look cool). (I really, really, really, want to ride one). (You know you can ride them for your birthday when you go to a game)? Zambonis start by scraping away the top layer of the ice. However, there are still deep grooves in the ice from the skaters. In order to fix this, the Zamboni lays down a piping-hot layer of water. This water transfers heat into the top layer of the ice. This causes the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to break (because the water from the Zamboni is hot enough to break the super strong forces between the molecules). This melts the ice, and gets rid of the grooves. The Zamboni then has a broom which smooths the water behind it. Then, because the whole arena is cold and sitting on top of a larger ice sheet, the thin layer of water begins to cool again and refreeze. The ice is the defining feature of hockey, and knowing how it works (and how the Zamboni works) can enhance our love for an already cool sport.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-run podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

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Chemistry of Fishing

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of fishing

Episode #10

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Ryan Foret and I am your host for episode #10 called Chemistry of Fishing Today I will be discussing the different examples of chemistry in various aspects of fishing.

Segment 1: Introduction to Fishing

The thrill of reeling in a fish and fighting against it is one of the most exhilarating things that humans can do for fun. What makes the sport even better is that almost anyone can do it with minimal equipment and cost. That being said, there is a variety of high-end and complex gear that experienced fishermen use. And I bet if you talk to any long time fisherman they will complain about why a bendy stick is over 500 dollars. But beginner fishermen don’t really need to worry about that.

Fishing can be very simple or very complicated depending on how deep you want to dive into the different types of gear and techniques that can be used.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Fishing

Today, we are going to dive deeper than any fisherman usually does in their lifetime and look at fishing on the molecular level. And that is what today’s episode is all about: the chemistry behind fishing.

Let’s start with diving deeper into the most dreaded thing that people think about when they hear “fish”; the smell. A certain chemical compound is the culprit of the fishy smell of fish. Trimethylamine (TMA) is what gives fish its odor. It’s derived from Trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) which protects saltwater fish from their salty environment. TMAO has nitrogen as its central atom with 3 CH3 groups and and an oxygen bonded to it. The oxygen atom breaks off of the compound and TMAO turns into TMA as the fish dies. This explains why old fish smells very bad and fresh fish shouldn’t have a foul odor.

Next, I want to talk about the chemistry behind the gear used to catch fish. Starting with fishing rods. Fishing rods are made from graphite and carbon fiber. Graphite is a covalent network solid made from carbon atoms that is very strong. Covalent network solids are solids made from nonmetals covalently bonded to each other that create lattice structures. Some examples of other covalent network solids are Diamond and silicon dioxide.

Many people think of graphite as very weak and brittle because of the number 2 pencils made from graphite they use in school every day. But graphite is quite strong due to the hexagonal honeycomb lattice of the material’s molecular structure. In fact, the only thing separating graphite from diamond which is one of the hardest materials on earth is one carbon atom.

The graphite in fishing rods is made into sheets made of graphite fibers that can bend and form around a center of material called the mandrel which is usually steel. The sheets of carbon are very strong and don’t break when stretched, but they can break under compression. This is why rods break on the underside where the material is compressed.

One of the most important pieces of fishing equipment is the hook. Fishing hooks need to be very sharp and thin but also extremely strong. This is why Fishing hooks are made from alloys such as Vanadium steel. Let’s step away from talking about fishing for a minute to talk about alloys. Alloys are metals that are mixed with other atoms to create a new, stronger metal that has different properties. There are two types of alloys; Interstitial and substitutional. Today we are going to focus on interstitial alloys. The most popular interstitial alloy is steel. Steel is made from iron with carbon atoms in between. The alloy is stronger than pure metals because the atoms are different sizes and are positioned between each other which makes it harder for sheets of atoms to slide past each other. Vanadium steel is an interstitial alloy made from .5% carbon, .8% manganese, .3% silicon , 1% chromium , and .18% vanadium . The rest is iron atoms

When fishing in saltwater, however, fishermen have to deal with the corrosive environment of the salt. This is why saltwater hooks are usually made from stainless steel, which isn’t as strong as carbon steel like Vanadium steel but it is corrosion resistant and doesn’t rust easily. Stainless steel is a steel alloy that contains a minimum chromium content of 10.5%. The chromium reacts with the oxygen in the air and forms a protective layer that makes stainless steel highly resistant to corrosion and rust.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Ok so that wraps up the chemistry portion of this podcast. Now I’m going to give you some insight on why im so passionate about this topic to wrap up the episode.

I’ve been fishing for as long as I can remember because my dad introduced me to it at a very young age. I fell in love with the thrill of the sport and the memories I have made with my dad on fishing trips are unforgettable. I have become a very experienced fisherman over the years and I always want to know more about the sport. That is why I made this podcast to learn about fishing on a deeper level and I hope you learned as much as I did.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/the-chemistry-of-fish

https://www.madehow.com/Volume-5/Fishing-Rod.html#google_vignette

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium%E2%80%93vanadium_steel https://www.sportfishingmag.com/techniques/bait-fishing/fishing-hook-construction/

https://www.thyssenkrupp-materials.co.uk/does-stainless-steel-rust

https://blog.ohiocarbonblank.com/graphite-isnt-brittle-may-think/

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Chemotherapy

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Chemotherapy

Episode #9

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Mahisvi Vemulapalli and I am your host for episode #9 called The Chemistry of Chemotherapy. Today, I will be discussing how chemotherapy works in the human body.

Segment 1: Introduction to Chemotherapy

Before we talk about chemotherapy, we need to know what cancer is. Cancer is a disease where damaged DNA results in cells overproducing and spreading to other parts of the body, resulting in the gathering of a tumor. These tumors latch onto the body parts to surrounding cells, growing exponentially in size and taking over the body’s systems. In order to combat cancer, chemotherapy was applied. However, the origin of chemotherapy comes from the discovery of reduced white blood cell counts after people were exposed to nitrogen mustard during World War II. Before you guys get excited about mustard, no, it is not the mustard that you eat. Nitrogen mustard was used in chemical warfare during the war as blister agents. Although the intentions of nitrogen mustard were to harm their opponents, the discovery allowed researchers to start examining the therapeutic effect of mustard agents in treating lymphoma, a type of cancer that arises in the lymph nodes. Though more nitrogen mustard had to be utilized, it was proven that the patient’s tumor masses were significantly reduced, marking the start of the use of cytotoxic agents for the treatments of cancer in 1946. Chemotherapy, otherwise known as chemical healing, started its fame that year. Therefore, as forms of chemotherapy updated and become popularized, there was a decline in mortality rates, making this form of treatment the most common for cancer. Today, we will be focusing on paclitaxel, a chemotherapy drug used for breast, lung, and ovarian cancer.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Chemotherapy

Solubility

However, the mysteries of chemotherapy start from how it is administered. So today, let’s talk about the truth behind paclitaxel. Paclitaxel is a part of the bark of a Pacific yew tree (don’t eat the fruits unless you vomit!), but actually, paclitaxel is actually a tetracyclic diterpenoid, an organic nonmetal compound with a base of 20 carbons, and many more carbonic structures on top of that. In fact, paclitaxel consists of 47 carbons, 51 hydrogens, 14 oxygens, and one nitrogen atom (that’s a lot of atoms!). Based off its molecular structure, this molecule mainly forms London dispersion forces (LDFs), with fewer hydrogen bonds. These hydrogen bonds only occur with the nitrogen and a few oxygen bonds. Though it may seem like there should be more hydrogen bonds, the distribution of the hydrogens amongst the oxygens are dispersed due to the established diterpenoid base with 20 carbons. Overall, this structures causes there to be a greater London dispersion force charge. Paclitaxel itself is originally a fine white powder. In order to administer as an injection, it needs to be dissolved in a soluble solution. Paclitaxel is not soluble in water. This is due to its organic structure that contains mainly LDFs. Therefore, paclitaxel is a nonpolar substance that can only dissolve with other nonpolar substances, like methanol. By dissolving the drug in methanol, it can now be administered as chemotherapy.

Half-life

Now, let’s dive into how chemotherapy works in the body. Paclitaxel itself breaks down in the body by targeting dividing cells. In order to do so, paclitaxel goes through a biphasic decline; it works rapidly and consistently in its first stage, and then travels slower at a constant rate. In its initial elimination phase being the first stage, paclitaxel has a half-life of about 3 to 14 minutes, while in its slower phase, it has a half-life of around 13 to 52 hours. But what is half-life anyway? Half-life is the time required for a substance to reduce to half of its initial value. This means that in the case of paclitaxel during the first phase, it takes between 3 and 14 minutes for the initial dose to be reduced by half. Therefore, when the paclitaxel decomposes into the cells in order to break them down, they initially reduce to a faster constant half-life, and then break down further into a slower half-life. Therefore, once the molecule is fully administered, it can produce the greatest effect.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

It’s important to understand truly how chemical treatments like chemotherapy work on the body, as most people just attribute the treatments to losing hair. However, chemotherapy itself is a wonder, as it one of the most efficient and effective treatments of cancer. Therefore, chemotherapy should not be taken lightly, and instead, it should be researched, so people are aware of the multiple factors that might change their lives. Personally, I enjoy researching medical solutions, and understanding this popular treatment was eye-opening. So next time you hear about chemotherapy, remember its journey throughout the human body.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/what-is-cancer/how-cancers-grow

https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/understanding/what-is-cancer

https://emergency.cdc.gov/agent/nitrogenmustard/basics/facts.asp

https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Paclitaxel

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK536917/#:~:text=Paclitaxel%20and%20its%20metabolites%20undergo,approximately%2013%20to%2052%20hours

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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In this episode, listen as you learn about one of the most influential medications in the modern medical world.

Chemistry of Batteries

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

The Chemistry of Batteries

Episode #8

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Brando and Kai and I am your host for episode #8 called the chemistry of batteries? Today we will be discussing what are batteries, the different types of batteries, and the chemistry behind them.

Segment 1: Introduction to Batteries

History of Batteries
Benjamin Franklin and his charged glass plates
Voltaic Pile
To cell battery technology

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind BATTERIES

Explain the two cell battery system
General description of what a battery is (cells, cathode where electrons are produced, anode where electrons are gained, redox reaction that takes place, one half reaction in one cell, a different half reaction in another cell)
Commercial types:
Alkaline batteries
Are commonly used in household items like remote controls and flashlights, rely on the chemical reaction between zinc (Zn) and manganese dioxide (MnO₂).
Anode reaction: ZnZn2++2e-
Cathode reaction: 2MnO+2H2O+2e-2MnO(OH)+2OH-
Overall reaction: Zn+2MnO+2H2O+2e-Zn2++2e-
Lithium-Ion batteries
Are prevalent in portable electronics and electric vehicles due to their high energy density. The fundamental reactions involve lithium ions (Li⁺) moving between the anode and cathode through an electrolyte.
Anode reaction: LiC66C+Li++e-
Cathode reaction: CoO2+Li++e-LiCoO2
Overall reaction: LiC6+Li+CoO26C+LiCoO2
Lead-Acid batteries
Are commonly used in automotive applications due to their ability to deliver high surge currents. The reactions involve lead (Pb), lead dioxide (PbO₂), and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).
Anode reaction: Pb+SO4-2PbSO4+2H2O
Cathode reaction: PbO2+4H++SO4-2+2e-PbSO4+2H2O
Overall reaction: Pb+PbO2+2H2SO42PbSO4+2H2O
Experimental/advanced types:
Solid-State Batteries
Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
Graphene and Silicon Anode Batteries

Segment 3: Personal Connections

We like robotics
In FRC robotics, we use Lead acid batteries, which are big and bulky because they hold a lot of charge, but they are quite heavy
In Robocup, a tournament we are participating in this year, we used lithium polymer batteries, which is LiPo for short. You see this all around in RC cars, and recreational vehicles

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

chem.libretexts

Wikipedia

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Golf

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Golf

Episode #_7_

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Christian Mayer and my name is AJ Yadamiec and we are your hosts for episode #7 called The 19th Hole Today I/we will be discussing the chemistry of golf.

Segment 1: Introduction to Golf. Clubs and Balls.

For those of you not familiar with golf, the objective of the game is to get a little ball into a hole far away by hitting it with your clubs in as few shots as possible. A round of golf consists of 18 holes. Each hole has a “par” or number of strokes typically taken to get it in the hole. The par for the average round of golf is 72, but can be 71 or 70 depending on the course. A golfer carries around with them a bag of clubs, each with a different purpose and distance capable of hitting the ball. On the tee box, which is where the hole starts, golfers will typically use a driver or a wood in order to get maximum distance on their first shot. From there, depending on the distance to the hole, the golfer will hit an iron or wedge to try and get on the green, which is the shortly cut area of grass on which the hole lies. Once on the green, the golfer will use their putter, an unlofted and usually shorter club, to putt the ball into the hole.
Each club is made up of two parts, the shaft and the club head. A different material is used for the heads between the three types of clubs, with lightness being preferred for the driver in order to achieve a high swing speed, strength is favored in iron materials to add power to the shot, while a heavier material is preferable for the putter for greater control.

Segment 4: Personal Connections

We are interested in this topic because we both like to golf. (Christian) I was on the golf team for 4 years in high school. I am a 10 handicap, which means on a par 72 golf course, I would shoot around an 82. My favorite club I have is my 3 wood. It has a graphite shaft with a stainless steel club face with a 17-4 stainless steel club head. I mainly just play for fun. (AJ) I just got into golf a year ago and am not that good. I enjoy golfing though very much. I like to play scramble, with a partner and my friend and I usually shoot around 100 on a par 72 golf course which is pretty poor. My favorite club to use is the 3 wood.

Now that we’ve gotten a basic understanding of golf, we're gonna play a theoretical hole with you. While we play we will dive into the chemistry behind the sport.

Segment 3: The Chemistry Behind BALLS

You take out your golf ball, let’s take the top of the line Titleist ball, the Pro V1. What seems like a very simple dimpled white object at first glance has been engineered meticulously to allow for the perfect amount of distance, control, and spin on every shot.

Golf balls consist of three main layers, the Core, the Mantle, and the Cover. Golf Ball manufacturers change these three parts to increased distance, increased control and increased feel. This often is referred to in golf as initial velocity, spin rate, and compression. The core is where energy is stored that will be released on impact of the golf club. Synthetic rubbers infused with polymers are the modern material for cores of golf balls. These cores are made up of long carbon chains that can be compressed and released which stores energy and releases energy.
The mantle of the golf balls are made of ionomers. Ionomers are similar to polymers, in that they are long chains of molecules covalently bonded together. However, ionomers contain both neutral and ionized molecules in its chain, though no more than 15% of the units in the ionomer chain are ionized. Ionomers have viscous properties because the non-polar pieces of the polymer backbone are not energetically compatible with the polar ionic groups., and are used for the mantle to reduce some of the spin generated by the core during impact with the club, increasing the distance a ball travels.
The covers of golf balls are the hardest working part of the ball. They must be as stiff as possible to use the energy the most efficient way and fly those long distances. The covers cannot be too stiff however, or they will crack easily. To meet this criteria, some golf ball covers are made of Urethane. Urethane, or C3H7NO2 , is a carbon chain with an OH end and an NO2 end. These polar ends form very strong intermolecular forces which help Urethane fit the criteria of a golf ball cover. The intermolecular forces include hydrogen bonds, one between the OH end and the Oxygen atom at a different point in the chain, and another hydrogen between the NH2 end and the Oxygen atom at a different point.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind CLUBS

You tee up your shot and take in the landscape of the first hole. It’s a 410 yard par 4 with a nice, wide fairway. Aj, What do you recommend I hit on this shot?

I would recommend a driver here.

Sounds like a plan!

Most common material woods (driver, 3 wood, etc.) are made out of titanium, a development that started in the 1990s. The properties behind titanium make it both a strong yet lightweight material that allows for fast swings and consistent contact. Titanium alloys such as 6/4 titanium or beta titanium are extremely common as well. Pure or high grade titanium is used typically only for the face of the club and the head of the driver/wood is a different, cheaper, and light material.
AJ: What makes golf companies choose titanium for the club heads/faces in drivers?
Titanium is an extremely strong metal with a low density. Its strength can be attributed to the fact that a titanium ion has 4 delocalized electrons when metallic bonding, which creates a larger sea of free flowing electrons between the titanium ions, thus strengthening the attraction between the ions.

(Slight pause)

You hit it dead center of the face and land your shot in the middle of the fairway, a solid 250 yard drive.

AJ: Id say that titanium club face sure is doing its job!

Christian: Those ions sure are putting in the work. We’ve got about 160 to the hole, What would you hit here AJ?

AJ: a soft 7 iron for sure.

Despite their name, irons are not made solely from iron, and are made instead from stainless steel, typically the alloys 17-4 or 431. 17-4 stainless steel is named as such because it is approximately 17% chromium and 4% nickel. This alloy is both interstitial and substitutional since both Cr and Ni are similar in size to Fe, but other elements like C or Ta differ greatly in size from Fe. The content of chromium in the alloy allows for very good corrosion resistance, since the chromium forms a thin layer of chromium oxide, protecting the iron from forming Fe2O3, or rust. This allows the clubs to be played in harsher weather conditions.

(Pause)

Christian: What a shot! You sure this is your first time? Looks like a 10 foot putt for birdie, which is one under par. Aj, What’s up with putters?

There are 3 main materials that putter heads are made of, Brass, Carbon Steel, and Stainless Steel. Brass putters are not seen often anymore because of how malleable brass is. Brass is an alloy made up of usually ⅓ zinc to ⅔ copper ratio. This alloy is structured in a metallic lattice which means tightly packed metal ions arranged in clumps. The alloy is also substitutional because zinc atoms are a similar size to copper atoms. The two are next to each other on the periodic table meaning their valence electrons exist in the same sublevel. You would expect copper to be a larger atom than zinc based on general periodic table trends but these trends can differ. One example is with zinc and copper. If you imagine a graph of the atomic radii of transition metals you would expect a negative slope the whole way from left to right, but… the curve actually kicks up at the end and radii increase because when you pack so many electrons into the one D orbital, they begin to repel each other and spread out. This means that zinc atoms actually have a larger atomic radius than copper atoms but they are still very similar in size. The substitutional quality of the alloy means that it is malleable and does not chip or crack. When hit with a golf ball in a certain way or hard enough, the brass putters would dent. If a golfer hits the ground with their brass putter it could permanently deform and wouldn't be functional anymore.
The next putter head is Carbon Steel. These were used in the 1990s and early 2000s. Carbon Steel is an interstitial alloy meaning a lattice structure of large iron atoms with small carbon atoms intermixed in the smaller spaces. Carbon Steel putters had one defect to them, they rusted very easily and very fast. Rust is just a name for Iron Oxide, Fe2O3. When oxygen atoms come in contact with the carbon steel lattice, iron atoms are ripped away and the putter rusts and decays. This was their fault.
The third putter material is stainless steel, the most common material today. Stainless steel is rust resistant due to its minimum of 10.5% chromium content. This chromium reacts with the oxygen in the air and forms a protective layer that prevents the iron in the stainless steel from reacting with the oxygen and rusting. This chromium layer makes stainless steel rust and corrosion resistant. The crystalline structure of the stainless steel makes it harder than carbon steel and brass which is why it is used so often in today's putters.

(Pause for cheering)

Christian: What a putt! You made a birdie and learned about chemistry!

AJ: I haven't seen game like this since my boys Henderson and Hasselbach in 09!

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://www.hirekogolf.com/clubheads-material-differences

https://www.britannica.com/science/titanium

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17-4_stainless_steel

https://www.thediygolfer.com/blog/the-differences-between-brass-carbon-steel-and-stainless-steel

https://www.golfballs.com/blog/what-are-golf-balls-made-out-of/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionomer#:~:text=An%20ionomer%20

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Cookies

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Cookies

Episode #6

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Zoe Reznik and I am your host for episode #6 called Chemistry of Cookies. Today I will be discussing the science behind your perfect chocolate chip cookie.

Segment 1: Introduction to Chemistry of Cookies

Introduce the episode topic

Include definitions, vocabulary, interesting background information and context

Every chocolate chip cookie has a different set of chemical properties and reactions that give them their unique textures. Whether your idea of the perfect cookie means it being chewy, crispy, or soft, there is a specific set of ingredients that give your cookie that wow factor.
To start, every cookie has the same base ingredients: flour, sugar, eggs, and butter. What you add to that list of ingredients really makes the cookie what it is. In this episode, I’ll be diving into the types of rising agents you can use and the different types of sugar.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Cookies

Have a natural transition into an example… no need to say “segment 2”

Provide detailed explanations of the chemistry that is related to your topic.

Remember that you must have a minimum of 2 topics from ap chem that you can explain here as related to your episode

To begin our investigation of the cookie, we’ll talk about the types of rising agents you use in your cookies, specifically baking soda and baking powder.
“soda spread and powder puffs” - baking soda helps your cookie dough spread out in the oven and baking powder helps the cookie rise.
Adding more baking soda will create a denser cookie, that’s flatter and not as soft. Adding more baking powder will result in a cookie that is taller and more doughy (more cake-like texture).
baking soda, sodium bicarbonate, decomposes into water and carbon dioxide when heated, with a leftover salt.
These products are gas -> warmer gas molecules will have particles that move faster, so they collide with other molecules in the cookie more, causing the cookie to expand in the oven.
However, the salt slows down the process of the bubbles creating air pockets within the cookie, meaning the cookie will fall flat instead of rising like it should. This is where the baking powder comes in. Baking powder combines that sodium bicarbonate with an acid that helps the cookies rise.
This combination is a mixture of an acid and a base, as the acid used in the baking powder will donate an H+ to the sodium bicarbonate from the baking soda, neutralizing the effect of the excess salt. That’s a little Bronsted-Lowry chemistry for you there. So, basically depending on how fluffy or dense you want your cookie, you should adjust your baking soda to baking powder ratio accordingly.

The next part of our baking adventure is the type of sugar used in chocolate chip cookies: regular white granulated sugar, light brown sugar, and dark brown sugar.

The Maillard process: a chemical reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars in the cookie that allow the cookie to caramalize (get that brown coloring) and give out an intense, rich flavor.
Reducing sugars are created from the breaking of bonds within sucrose to form fructose and glucose during heating.
Sucrose and fructose are highly polar, so they can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules in the cookies, allowing for a greater water retention in the cookie, or less evaporation of the water when baking the cookie. Hydrogen bonds are a type of intermolecular forces between two very polar molecules, in this case it’s sugar and water. They are very strong and hard to break, so when the sugar forms one with water, it creates a strong enough bond that won’t break when it undergoes heating, allowing the water to stay within the cookie.
greater the water concentration in the cookie = more moist and fluffy cookie
White granulated sugar will not undergo a strong Maillard reaction because it doesn’t contain as much reducing sugars, so a cookie with white granulated sugar will be a crispier cookie
Dark brown sugar undergoes a much stronger Maillard reaction and will produce a softer, chewier cookie because of all the reducing sugars it has
Light brown sugar is somewhere in the middle.
Basic rundown: to make a lighter, chewier cookie, you want less water to evaporate during the baking process. To get this to happen, you want more reducing sugars in your cookie that will form hydrogen bonds to the water molecules and keep them in the cookie. To get a higher concentration of reducing sugars, you want a darker sugar, like dark brown sugar. Lighter sugar = crispy cookie, darker sugar = chewier cookie.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

What interested you in this topic? Why is it important? Anything else you’d like to share.

My sister has been baking for years, and I admired her baked goods as a little kid
I started baking on my own in high school and chocolate chip cookies are my favorite baked good
Looking for the perfect recipe
This podcast is a great excuse for me to bakes a ton of cookies and eat them to see which one is best
The best cookie is with: (enter here)

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Sour Candy

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

The Chemistry of Sour Candy

Episode #5

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Anna Zhao and I am your host for episode #5 called The Chemistry of Sour Candy. Today I will be discussing the chemistry behind turning regular sugar into hard candy and the chemistry behind citric acid.

Segment 1: Introduction to Candy

Hard candy is a product made predominantly from sugar and corn syrup that may be flavored or colored, and is characterized by a hard, brittle texture.

When we talk about candy making, one of the central ideas is crystallization. This is the process where sugar molecules arrange themselves into a well defined, repeating structure known as a crystal. The texture of the candy whether its smooth like caramel or crunchy like rock candy, depends on how the sugar crystals are formed.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Sour Candy

At the heart of candy making is a simple ingredient we all know: sugar, or more specifically, sucrose. Now, lets zoom in and further look at the polarity of sucrose. Sucrose is a polar molecule, meaning it has distinct positive and negative ends.

The overal polarity depends on both the individual bond polarities, and the geometry of the molecule.

Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract shared electrons in a covalent bond. When two atoms in a molecule have different electronegativities, the electrons in the bond are not shared equally, resulting in a polar bond. The atoms in sucrose are Carbon with an electronegativity of 2.55, Hydrogen with an electronegativity of 2.20, and oxygen with an electrogetivity of 3.44.

Using these values, it is determined that C-H bonds have an electronegativity difference of 0.35 (smal diff), C-O have 0.89 (large diff considered polar), and O-H have a diff of 1.24 (very large diff considered very polar).

C-O bonds are polar because oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. This causes a partial neg charge on the oxygen atoms and a partial pos charge on the carbon atom. O-H bonds are even more polar due to the larger electronegativity difference between oxygen and H. This results in a partial negative charge on the oxygen atom and a partial pos charge on the hydrogen atom.

Sucrose is a three dimensional structure with hydroxyl (OH) groups extending in various directions. The asymmetry of the molecule means that the dipole moments of the bonds do not cancel each other out, making the molecule polar.

Knowing that sucrose is polar is important because it explains how and why sugar dissolves in water.

So what happens when you heat it up? When you heat a sugar and water solution. You’re not just dissolving sugar. You’re actually changing the crystal structure. By applying heat, we separate the highly bound sucrose crystals, allowing us to manipulate them in new ways. Basically, raising the temperature of the sugar solution increases the amount of sugar that can dissolve in water, creating what’s known as a supersaturated solution. As the solution cools, the sugar will start to recrystallize into a solid mass.

Terms like “softball” and “hardcrack” are often used by candy makers to describe the texture of the sugar solution when it’s heated to specific temperatures. For instance, at around 235°F to 245°F, you get what is known as the softball stage which is perfect for making softer candies like fudges and fondants. Heating it up to 300°F to 310°F is known as the hard crack stage which is needed for making hard candies like lollipops. The higher the temperature is, the harder the candy becomes because you’re reducing the water content.

As the sugar solution cools, the sugar molecules start to recrystallize. If you’re making, for example, rock candy, you should leave the mixture undisturbed to allow the sugar molecules to come together slowly and form large crystals. On the other hand, if you want a smoother texture or consistency, you need to agitate the mixture to prevent the formation of large crystals.

There are multiple ways to achieve this. Stirring is one way, while another way is adding invert sugars like corn syrup. Invert sugar is a mixture of glucose and fructose, which interfere with sucrose crystalization. These molecules combine with the sucrose in a way that disrupts the formation of the large crystals.

Another way is to add acids like lemon juice or cream of tartar to the candy mixture which convert some of the sucrose into invert sugar, achieving the same result.

As you can see, acids play a huge role in candy making. So we’re now going to shift focus onto citric acid how it is used to add sourness to sweet candy. Citric acid is a natural acid found in citrus fruits like lemons, limes, and oranges and is what gives their characteristic flavor.

Sourness is the taste our tongue detects from acidity. Specifically, it is the hydrogen ions H+ that are responsible for the taste.

When citric acid comes in contact with water (Like in our saliva), it dissociates. This means the citric acid molecule (C6H8O7) releases hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions combine with water molecules to form hydronium ions h3o+. Our tongues have receptors for H3O+ and once they detect it, they send signals to our brain telling us we are tasting something sour.

So every time you eat sour candy, it’s essentially a mini chemistry experiment happening in your mouth!

Segment 3: Personal Connections

The main reason I chose this topic is that I love eating candy just like billions of people around the world. I’ve also grown up making candy at home , where I used to make tanghulu with my grandma which is like a chinese snack thats basically a fruit skewer dipped and coated in hardened sugar/candy, I’ve found that not only is candy making a fun activity, It’s a great way to learn about chemistry in a delicious, and tangible way. I’ve always been curious about the chemical properties and processes involved, especially how such simple ingredients can be transformed into such a wide variety of textures and flavors. I hope you enjoyed this topic and I hope that next time you enjoy a sweet treat, this makes you think more about the chemistry it took to make it, and the chemistry happening in your mouth!

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MoBvV12C58&ab_channel=WIRED

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KXs_axKuPvE&ab_channel=RandyMakesCandy

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Minerals

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

The Chemistry of Minerals

Episode #4

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Ben Ault and I am your host for episode #4 called The Chemistry of Minerals. Today I will be discussing the chemistry behind the formation and properties of minerals.

Segment 1: Introduction to Minerals

Minerals are a classification of substances that are formed naturally via geological processes and form crystalline structures. Specifically, this means that they are usually formed by different substances undergoing reactions deep beneath the earth's surface, under extreme temperature and pressure conditions.

In this segment, I'll cover:

What defines a mineral
The result of the chemical properties of minerals
The difference between rocks and minerals
Species distinctions of minerals
Classification of minerals

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Minerals

All of this is a result of the atomic behaviors of the elements that compose each mineral. All of these phenomena and patterns can be explained by delving into the chemistry within each mineral.

In this segment, I'll cover:

Topic 1: Formation

Conditions that enable the formation of minerals
How the conditions can affect the types of minerals created
Formation through volcanic or oceanic activity

Topic 2: Properties as a result of bond types

Bond structures of minerals
Empirical structures and formulas
Conditions that determine bond structure
Crystal structures in relation to bond structure
Malleability and pure metallic minerals

Topic 3: Properties as a result of elemental composition

How elemental composition affects color
Predictions of elements in a mineral based off of color
Fluorescent minerals

Segment 3: Personal Connections

When I was in kindergarten, I had a teacher that gave my class little rocks and minerals for doing well, and explained to us whatever we could understand at that age. Since then, I've kept my collection of rocks and I've consistently been curious about what makes rocks and minerals behave the way they do.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

Types of Minerals - Definition, Classification & Examples with Videos

Mineral - Wikipedia

Minerals, Crystals, Rocks & Stones: What’s The Difference? - FossilEra.com

How do minerals form? - The Australian Museum

How Are Diamonds Made?

Mineral Classification - Sternberg Museum of Natural History

Fluorescence - Wikipedia.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Caffeine

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Caffeine

Episode #3

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Neve and Alana and I am your host for episode #3 called Chemistry of Caffeine Today we will be discussing The chemical structure and function of the caffeine molecule.

Segment 1: Introduction to Caffeine

Introduce the episode topic

Include definitions, vocabulary, interesting background information and context

Alana: Hey everyone, I’m Alana…and I’m Neve… and welcome to this week's episode of Chemistry Connections, where today, we will be discussing the chemistry of everyone's favorite chemical: caffeine!!!!!!!! Caffeine is a chemical compound which is commonly found in beverages and serves as a central nervous system stimulant, and it is the most widely used CNS stimulant in the world.

Neve: Whether it be in your morning coffee, or your pre-workout energy drink, people these days can’t get enough of this energizing substance.

Alana: In one year, Americans will consume over 971 tons of pure caffeine (Cooper Aerobics). That's a LOT!

Neve: Since we consume so much of it, it's probably important to understand it better.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Caffeine

Alana: Caffeine at its foundation, is just a combination of Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen, with a chemical structure of C8H10N4O2.

Neve: The molecule has 25 sigma bonds and 4 pi bonds. Sigma bonds are bonds that are directly in line with the nuclei of the bonding atoms. Pi bonds occur when there are multiple bonding spots, located either above or below the nuclei of the bonding atoms.

Alana: Each single bond is made up of one sigma bond, and each double bond is made up of one sigma and one pi bond. Because of this, there are 25 sigma bonds and 4 pi bonds that make up a caffeine molecule. Neve: All the bonds in a caffeine molecule are stable, covalent bonds, as the bonding allows each atom to completely fill its valence shell.

Alana: These bonds are slightly polar, making the caffeine molecule a polar molecule. The molecule is polar because there are EN differences between the oxygen/nitrogen and carbon atoms, allowing the oxygen/nitrogen atoms to slightly pull the electrons towards them in the bond.

Neve: Because the caffeine molecule is polar and there are dipole moments formed between atoms, there are dipole-dipole IMFs that exist between the atoms in the molecule. Additionally, the caffeine molecule has London Dispersion Forces. LDFs exist between all particles, regardless of polarity.

Alana: The covalent bonds in a caffeine molecule are very strong, and the strength of these bonds lend themselves to a high melting point at around 230 degrees.

Neve: The stronger the bond, the stronger the IMFs between the molecules, meaning more energy is needed to break these bonds. In this case, the energy comes in the form of heat, meaning caffeine has a high melting point.

Alana: The covalent bonds in the caffeine molecule also allow for hydrogen bonding to occur between caffeine and water molecules. The strongest H-bond forms at the top C=O group, but additional bonds can form between water and the bottom C=O group, as well as between the nitrogen atoms and water molecules.

Segment 3: Caffeine: Is it an acid or a base?

Neve: It's also important to understand that even though people may think that caffeine is super acidic, caffeine is only a weak acid, meaning it can protonate a strong base.

Alana: This means that caffeine wants to give hydrogen atoms to basic substances.

Neve: One reason that caffeine is acidic has to do with the structure’s outer nitrogen atoms. Nitrogen atoms have a lone pair of electrons in their outer shell, which are readily available to give protons aka hydrogen atoms.

Alana: Because of this, caffeine can react with other substances which are bases to form salts.

Neve: It's not typical in nature for this formation of salts to happen, as the only times that caffeine typically forms into salts are in lab settings.

Alana: Caffeine Hydrochloride, Caffeine Sodium Benzoate, and Caffeine Sulfate are a few types of caffeine salts.

Neve: In your morning cup of coffee, however, your caffeine is likely in the form of a “free Alkaloid”. This means that the caffeine molecules are not bonded to any other types of molecules.

Alana: This is because caffeine is a very very weak acid.

Neve: The molecule is such a weak acid that it's practically neutral. In fact, it has a pH of 6.55, which is very close to a 7, which is neutral on the pH scale.

Alana: The addition of sugar or cream to your coffee can have impacts on the pH, though the effects are very minimal as the pHs of milk and sugar are very close to being neutral.

Neve: The acid may be weak, but I like my coffee strong!!!

Segment 4: Personal Connections

What interested you in this topic? Why is it important? Anything else you’d like to share.

Neve: We were particularly interested in the topic of caffeine, since we are such fanatics ourselves.

Alana: We’ve gotten very good at making it and ordering it. What’s your go-to coffee Neve?

Neve: If I’m making it at home, it’s usually a cold brew with some alond milk and sugar or that carmel flavor syrup. But, if I’m ordering it, it depends on Dunkin or Starbucks. My Dunkin order is ___ and my Starbucks order is __.

Alana: Ooooh those are good choices. If I’m making it myself, it’s def gotta be either a lavender latte or a caramel latte. If it’s Dunkin though, its gotta be an iced coffee with oatmilk and caramel. And then from Starbs I get either a latte with something or the shaken espressos.

TALK ABOUT COFFEE FOR A BIT

Alana: Oftentimes I find myself over-consuming caffeine, so it's important to understand the chemical properties and effects that it has on the body.

Neve: Caffeine is a fascinating molecule that has so many attributes. There are many different chemicals that caffeine causes the human body and brain to produce.

Alana:Norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter and hormone, plays an important role in your body's “fight-or-flight” response.

Neve: Dopamine, acts on areas of the brain to give you feelings of pleasure, satisfaction and motivation

Alana: And serotonin, a chemical that carries messages between nerve cells in the brain and throughout your body.

Neve: These are just a few of the many effects caffeine has on the human brain.These qualities also contribute to the addictive trait of many of our favorite caffeinated beverages. WE HAVE 30 SECONDS KEEP GOING

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

Cooper Aerobics

National Library of Medicine

National Library of Medicine Study

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Subscribe to our Podcast

Connect with us on Social Media

@theHVSPN

Chemistry of Chipotle

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

The Chemistry of Chipotle

Episode #2

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Maxxe Rice and I am your host for episode #2 called The Chemistry of Chipotle Today I will be discussing the best food known to man, Chipotle.

Segment 1: Introduction to Chipotle

For the first segment I will be discussing an introduction to what Chipotle is. For those who don't know, Chipotle is the best fast food restaurant chain that serves Mexican inspired cuisine. They are infamous for their delicious burritos, bowls, quesadillas, chips and guacamole. The restaurant is set up when you are ordering in an assembly line style in which you customize your burrito, bowl, or whatever you are choosing to get as you go down the line with workers scooping the ingredients for you. They go by their motto at chipotle that, “Real is better. Better for You, Better for People, Better for Our Planet.” They make their food fresh every day because of their motto and they use no artificial flavors, colors, or preservatives, no freezers, can openers, or shortcuts… I know I wouldn't want to work there either, it seems like a lot of work. But really that's what makes them so good they are committed to their amazing food and they only use 53 real ingredients. There is also an extreme debate about how to pronounce Chipotle especially with my grandparents and I. My grandma calls it Chi-poat-lee, my other grandma calls it Chi-pot-te but all of those are wrong. The correct way to say chipotle is Chih-poat-lay.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Chipotle

Now you know what chipotle is, let's dive into some of the science behind this outstanding food.

Specifically starting with: a common ingredient in chipotles renowned known guacamole, tomato red chili salsa, fresh tomato salsa, roasted chili corn salsa, honey vinaigrette, tomatillo green chili salsa, and so many other foods that chipotle has that if I said all of them I would be talking for almost 5 minutes. One ingredient that all of these foods have in common is some type of pepper. These peppers also have something in common as well… SPICEEEEEEE. This is where the chemistry comes in…. Because well the spicy flavor that you taste with some of chipotle's food is due to a spice molecule named capsaicin…. I know what you may be thinking capsa what?! Yes you heard it right, capsaicin. Capsaicin is my cool friend that basically has active chemical superpowers. Capsaicin, the molecular formula of C18H27NO3, is an organic molecule which is made up of a benzene ring with a long hydrophobic carbon tail and a polar amide group. Now let's take a further look into the actual structure of the molecule because that sounds really confusing. A benzene ring is a ring formation of six carbon atoms which are bonded together and have alternating single and double bonds between them. The long hydrophobic carbon tail means essentially a chain of carbon atoms bonded together with surrounding hydrogen atoms around them bonded to each carbon on the chain. The polar amide group is the part of the molecule where there is a nitrogen atom and a double bonded oxygen atom. We can break this molecule up into two different polar regions and 1 nonpolar region. Something is polar if there is asymmetry in the molecule and if there is a difference in electronegativity between the atoms within the molecule. Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract shared electrons when forming a chemical bond. With larger molecules we don't tend to just get one solidly polar or nonpolar molecule but a molecule with different regions of polarity. The hydrocarbon tail contains a difference in electronegativity because of the difference in electronegativity between the hydrogen and carbon molecules however it is not polar due to the symmetry of carbon and hydrogen atoms that make up these chains, therefore this part of the molecule is nonpolar. On the other hand the part of the molecule that contains the amide group and benzene ring with the OH attached to it is an example of a polar section of the molecule. This is a polar section because of the asymmetry of the different atoms and the difference in electronegativity between the different atoms as well. Ok now more about what it does in the actual pepper… Capsaicin is an organic molecule that is contained within the membrane of peppers. This membrane that capsaicin is in holds the seeds in chili peppers, which fun fact, contrary to what most people think and what I found interesting… I always thought it was the seeds that were the specifically spicy part of peppers but that's not actually the case. When you eat something with Capsaicin you feel the burning sensation of something being spicy. This happens because the molecules have an unique shape and size which allows it to react with the TRPV1 Receptor which is a special receptor on your tongue that creates a chemical response in your body. Specifically, the calcium ions go to the receptor and trigger neurons to be released. Neurons are cells that can essentially talk and communicate with your brain and tell them that there is a burning and spicy sensation in your mouth when you eat foods containing Capsaicin.

In addition to there being chemistry behind the spice in their foods, there is also chemistry behind how Chipotle keeps their incredible food warm. In order to ensure that the food is getting to our plates the freshest that it can, Chipotle uses a water bath heating system in order to keep all of the warm food warm at all times. The food is held in separate metal containers, each ingredient in a different metal container. These containers are slid into a big metal bin like structure which has some water in the bottom but not enough to physically touch the separate metal containers that are slid into the top of the bin. Underneath the big metal bin that's installed into the counter there are burners. Let's follow the heat transfer from the burners underneath the bins all the way to the best food ever. First the burners underneath the bin are fueled by propane. Propane is a burning fuel that's used for light and heat. It is stored under pressure inside a tank and it is an odorless colorless liquid. When the burner is turned on, pressure is released from the propane tank and the liquid propane vaporizes, turning into a gas that is used in the combustion reaction in order to create heat and light. A combustion reaction is a reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen gas and releases energy in the form of light and heat. Specifically, the reaction that propane undergoes is written as C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4 H2O + Heat . This reaction means that propane and oxygen react together in order to create carbon dioxide, water, and heat as products. This combustion reaction of propane is an exothermic reaction which means that the reaction releases heat and light in the form of creating a flame. This reaction being an exothermic reaction also means that there is more energy released when product bonds are formed and less energy absorbed when reactant bonds are broken. The heat from the exothermic combustion reaction is then released to the stainless steel metal bin on top of the burners. Chipotle uses stainless steel metal for the material of their containers because metals are amazing conductors of heat. Stainless steel specifically is made up of the metals iron, and chromium. Iron and Chromium atoms form metallic bonds between their atoms. Metallic bonding refers to chemical bonding that takes place between metal atoms in which electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom are shared by all the atoms in the metal created. This bond creates what they call a sea of electrons. In order for something to be conductive the substance must have charged particles that are able to flow. Because of the sea of electrons that iron contains due to its metallic bonds, iron has free flowing electrons which are charged particles that can flow in the sea of electrons. Therefore iron is a great conductor and great at transferring energy. Iron conducts heat from the burners beneath to the water that is present in the bin. When the water bath gets heated the water molecules move faster and gain more energy, eventually leading to the intermolecular forces (hydrogen bonds) between the water molecules breaking and water molecules changing phases from liquid to a vapor. The water vapor molecules move very fast and have a lot of energy in which the water molecules then collide with the smaller stainless steel containers which are slid on top of the big metal bin. The collisions from the water vapor particles with the small metal bins creates another energy transfer and the metal bins to be heated. The stainless steel is then able to heat up and conduct the heat energy to the food that the bins contain, resulting in the food staying warm.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Now you may be thinking well, why chipotle? Well the truth is I chose Chipotle for my project because it is my favorite thing on the face of the earth. I first tried Chipotle in first grade and I remember the exact day. I got a bowl and I have been hooked ever since. As soon as I take my first bite into my food I feel an insane feeling of serenity and euphoria. The food is just so good and it makes me so happy. I just love it man and it's important because other people would love it if they tried it too. It is also a plus that I love chemistry and there is so much chemistry involved in Chipotle as I explained during this podcast which is just another plus. My order if you would like to know is a bowl with a quesadilla on the side (So you can make a burrito with some of your bowl while you are eating) then white rice, chicken, pico, corn, lettuce, cheese, sour cream, guac, and chips on the side. There is also a life hack that semi has to deal with science (Psychology possibly) which can be for an episode another time once I learn psychology. But if you ask for each topping one at a time they are bound to give you more with each scoop because the workers don't know how to portion it right. Alright now I am done talking about chipotle but the chemistry never stops! Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.chipotle.com/values

https://www.everydaychemistries.com/blog/capsaicin

https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/propane-basics

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/capsaicin#:~:text=Capsaicin%20

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Slime

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 14 Jun 2024 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

The Chemistry of Slime

Episode #_1_

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Agathe and my name is Beck. We are your hosts for episode #1 called The Chemistry of Slime. Today we will be deep-diving into the chemistry of slime. We will discuss not only what slime is but also how it is made.

Segment 1: Introduction to Slime

Slime—something we all know and love. Typically, you see it on TikTok or Instagram, where someone mixes glue and an unknown clear substance in a bowl, ultimately creating a fun, rubbery material. It is enjoyable to play with, poke, stretch, and make large bubbles with, but what makes slime the way it is, and what allows it to behave like that?

Slime is made by mixing glue with an activator containing boric acid. Typically, people use borax, a common clothing cleaner, mixed with water and then add it to the glue.

But Beck, what if I don't have Borax, or what if my parents dont let me use such a strong cleaner, especially when I am making slime with my little sister

Others like myself, who prefer to avoid strong chemicals, tend to use baking soda and contact solution. Which works just as well and is much more accessible and safe. The resulting substance is rubbery and molten, yet not sticky, allowing it to be played with for hours. But the interesting question is why is slime the way it is, why is it moldable but not sticky.

Put a pin in that Beck we will talk about that later. Another fun aspect of slime is that it can be tailored to anyone's preferences, with its color, texture, and size changing depending on the added ingredients. This versatility makes slime a popular and customizable activity for many.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Slime

Going back to your question from earlier beck Topic one: The formation of PVA/borate cross-linked polymer (How is Slime Made?)

glue is made up of PVA chains, which are basically long chains of CH2, Oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. Then we have, borate ions which are found in the activator, which are made up of boron bonded to hydrogen and oxygen. When mixed together, the borate ions bond the PVA chains of the glue together, creating a fishnet structure which is called cross-linking. So beck, What type of bonds connect the Borate to PVA?

Well it is actually hydrogen bonds, which are a type of intermolecular dipole dipole force that is very strong. They are formed when hydrogen is bonded to a very electronegative element, either Nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. The resulting bond is very strong and allows slime to be formed. But one thing you will notice is that when making slime it actually get colder, why is that Agathe

Interestingly, the reaction is endothermic, meaning it absorbs energy in the form of heat from its surroundings to form new bonds, causing the slime to feel cold. The endothermic nature of the reaction is due to the formation of these hydrogen bonds, which requires a lot of energy to be created.

Wow! That is so interesting Agathe! Now I know how slime is made. You know, once I made slime and I stretched it so much that it created a big bubble, when it popped it got into my sister's hair.

That is insane! But how does slime get that stretchy? I thought hydrogen bonds were super strong

Topic 2: Why is slime stretchy?

Good question Agathe leading us to topic 2! Slimes' flexible nature is actually due the hydrogen bonds between the borate and PVC molecules.

No way! That seems so counterintuitive.

The hydrogen bonds within slime are strong enough to keep the slime intact when stretched but also flexible enough to allow movement within the polymer network.

Ahhh i see. Wait but last time I made slime with mr johnson he told me to add in lotion he said it would make it stretchier. I told him that didn't sound right to me. Who was right?

Mr Johnson actually is! Adding lotion to the slime introduces glycerin, which interacts with the hydrogen bonds.

Ugh whatever, what even is glycerin

It is an odorless carbohydrate liquid that has a sweet taste and a syrupy consistency. While glycerin occurs naturally in plants through the fermentation of sugars, most of the glycerin nowadays is produced from factories. They are able to form hydrogen bonds with the PVA.

Oh I see so the glycerin replaces some of the existing hydrogen bonds, instead hydrogen bonding to the PVA, making the whole substance weaker and more flexible. But not too much so that it becomes a liquid.

Yes, This results in the slime becoming even stretchier, as the weaker bonds can extend further while still maintaining the overall structure of the slime. Thus, the stretchiness is a balance between the strong, flexible bonds and the weakened bonds introduced by the lotion, providing both resilience and extensibility.

That's so cool. I love that!

Why are we here today

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Well Beck, we both loved the idea of the chemistry behind slime because it is such a simple thing to make that many kids love; however, we never thought of how these liquids turn into solids without heat or outside forces. Many times students don’t remember what is taught in school, however, I believe that when we focus on subjects we enjoy, this is what we will remember for the rest of our lives.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-run podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://stemium.com/slime-science-project/

https://www.ccmr.cornell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/11/ScienceofSlime_student.pdf

https://www.steamworks.org.uk/how-does-slime-work/#:~:text=Slime%20is%20wet%20because%20water,be%20pulled%20into%20stretchy%20shapes.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Rockets

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Wed, 05 Jul 2023 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Rockets and Space Crafts

Episode #15

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Vanessa and I am your host for episode #15 called Chemistry of Rockets and Space crafts. Today I will be discussing how rockets are launched into space and how people are able to survive in the vessels. Specifically, how chemistry helps make space travel possible.

Segment 1: Introduction to Rockets and Space Crafts

What is a rocket?

First off I’m going to talk about what a rocket actually is. Usually when you think of a rocket, you probably think of a tall, thin, round vehicle. However, a rocket isn’t just the traditional spacecraft but it can also be the engine and any vehicle that uses the engine

When were rockets invented?

The first “rockets” were created in China in the 1200s. They used solid fuel and were used as fireworks. They were also used by armies. Overtime, rockets evolved and became bigger. Rocket production really picked up during the cold war, where in 1957 the Soviet’s Sputnik was launched. In 1969, the United States sent the first men to the moon with the Saturn V rocket
How rockets and spacecraft work have changed over time, especially with the types of engines used and how the engines work.

Shuttles and space capsules (apollo missions)

How do the engines work?

The engines burn fuel, which turns into hot gas which is then pushed out the back by the engine. The gas causes the rocket to propel upwards and move forwards
A rocket engine is different from a jet engine because it doesn't need air. It has everything it needs, allowing it to work in space.
There are two types of engines:
Liquid fuels (used in the space shuttles and Russian Soyuz)
First liquid fuel rocket which is used today was invented by Robert H Goddard
Solid fuels (on the side of the space shuttles)

Rockets/Space Crafts Today:

ISS (International Space Station)
NASA, Russia’s Roscosmos, Japan’s JAXA, Europe’s ESA, and Canada’s CSA
To conduct research and study space
Artemis missions
Return to the moon, long term presence on the moon, to study and better understand the lunar surface
Space X
Aims to help in the mission to colonize mars and participate in space travel and exploration

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Rockets and Space Crafts

What makes NASA rockets fly:

Combustion Reactions:

Newton’s Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. The combustion reactions are what allow the rockets to launch and then fly.
A combustion reaction results from burning something. It releases energy which is what allows the rockets to move. The fuel is what burns when it is mixed with an oxidizer creating a propellant.
RS-25 main engines are liquid engines:
Liquid hydrogen is the fuel
Liquid oxygen is the oxidizer
The boosters use aluminum as fuel with ammonium perchlorate as the oxidizer and is mixed with a binder creating a homogeneous solid propellant.
Hydrogen: the main fuel is the lightest element as exists normally as a gas
Low density meaning a little takes up a lot of space
A really large tank would be needed for a large combustion reaction, which isn’t aerodynamically suitable
Therefore, by turning hydrogen into a liquid it makes it denser meaning it takes up less space. Hydrogen is cooled to a temp of -432 degrees Fahrenheit.
Oxygen:
Oxygen is denser than hydrogen but also needs to be compressed into a liquid in order to fit into the smaller lighter tank so it is cooled to -297 degrees Fahrenheit
LH2 and LOX
Liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O + Energy
Water
Releases a lot of energy in the form of steam
The hydrogen-oxygen reaction generates heat which causes the water vapor to expand and exit the nozzles at speeds of 10000 miles per hour. The fast moving stream allows the rocket to propel upwards.
*talk about not knowing it was steam*

Living long-term in space:

The ISS uses a method to remove CO2 from the air and allow astronauts to breath by using a sorbent, LiOH
The exothermic reaction of LiOH with CO2 creates lithium carbonate (Li2CO3)(s) and water. LiOH has a high absorption capacity for CO2 and produces a small amount of heat. It is also a very strong base.
This will also be used in future missions to Mars as well as on other long term missions that require people to be able to breath without their suits on.
CO2 and O2
2LiOH(s) + CO2 (g) → Li2CO3(s) + H2O (g)
It's an acid-base reaction. Scrubbers, which are expandable filters, containing lithium hydroxide, capture carbon dioxide. This removes carbon dioxide in the air, allowing astronauts to breathe. (originally)

For long term missions, this isn't effective so scrubbers with minerals called zeolites are instead used. They capture the CO2 and release it into space, allowing it to be reused for extended periods.

Now, scientists discovered a way to turn carbon dioxide into water.

Carbon dioxide reduction system →meanign the number of electrons associated with the atom increase. `

Combines CO2 with hydrogen gas to form water and methane. The methane gas is vented into space and the water is split into breathable oxygen and hydrogen gas using hydrolysis. The hydrogen gas is then used to make more water.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Space has always been something that has fascinated me and I grew up obsessed with everything space and NASA related. I know a lot about the planets and stars, but not a lot about the rockets and vessels that actually allow us to get data on astronomical bodies. So I wanted to research this topic to learn how exactly rockets work on a chemistry level.
Air and Space museum in DC
NASA Houston
NASA Cape Canaveral/Kennedy Space Center
How cool it is the affect chemistry has on space

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://blogs.nasa.gov/Rocketology/2016/04/15/weve-got-rocket-chemistry-part-1/

https://blogs.nasa.gov/Rocketology/tag/chemical-reactions/

https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-is-a-rocket-k4.html

https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/teach/activity/the-air-up-there-making-space-breathable/#:~:text=And%20chemistry%20plays%20an%20important,called%20lithium%20hydroxide%20(LiOH).

https://tech.hindustantimes.com/tech/news/nasa-artemis-i-mission-not-just-rocket-science-hidden-chemistry-powers-moon-launches-and-sustains-life-in-space-71662286082698.html

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Cosmetics

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Wed, 05 Jul 2023 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Cosmetics

Episode #14

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Sydney Yeh and my name is Hannah Chu and we are your hosts for episode 12 called Chemistry of Cosmetics. Today we will be discussing the chemistry of cosmetics.

Segment 1: Introduction to Cosmetics

What are cosmetics?

(General cosmetics)

There are thousands of different cosmetic products on the market, all with different combinations of ingredients. In the United States alone, there are approximately 12,500 unique chemical ingredients approved for use in personal care products. A typical product could contain anything from 15–50 ingredients. Considering the average woman uses between 9 and 15 personal care products per day, researchers have estimated that, when combined with the addition of perfumes, women place around 515 individual chemicals on their skin each day through cosmetic use.

(History of cosmetics)

Let’s take it back to cosmetics in the olden times. Cosmetics were first seen in ancient Egypt, where makeup served as a marker of wealth believed to appeal to the gods. The elaborate eyeliner characteristic of Egyptian art appeared on men and women as early as 4000 BCE. Kohl, rouge, white powders to lighten skin tone, and malachite eye shadow (the green color that represented the gods Horus and Re) were all in popular use. By 3000 B.C men and women in China had begun to stain their fingernails with colors according to their social class, while Greek women used poisonous lead carbonate to achieve a pale complexion.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Cosmetics

(pigments/color)

A huge range of substances are used to create many appealing colors found in makeup. Mineral ingredients include iron oxide, mica flakes, manganese, chromium oxide, and coal tar. Natural colors can come from plants, such as beet powder.

Cosmetic pigments are broken up into two types, organic and inorganic.

Inorganic pigments consist of iron oxides, chromium dioxides, ultramarines, manganese violet, white pigments, and pearlescent effects. They are used for their opaque color coverage, making them particularly suitable in face and eye makeup. They are usually duller in appearance than organic pigments. The transition metals in inorganic pigments form colorful ions, complexes, and compounds. This is due to the unfilled d orbitals these elements have. When transition metal ions form complexes and compounds with other molecules, they become colored. They bond to one or more neutral or negatively charged nonmetals, also known as ligands (li gens), changing the shape of d orbitals. Unabsorbed wavelengths of light pass through a complex and some light is also reflected back from a molecule. The combination of absorption, reflection, and transmission results in the apparent colors of the complexes.

(mica)

Shimmering effects can be created by coating mica with titanium dioxide and iron oxides to vary the refractive index observed in the finished product. Cosmetic mica typically comes from muscovite, also known as white mica. It naturally forms in flaky sheets, which are crushed into fine powders. The tiny particles in the powders refract (bend) light, which creates the shimmering effect common in many cosmetics. Various thicknesses of titanium dioxide are used to vary the color effects that are created through the different refractive angles that are created. These refractive angles can also manipulate the visual effects of the finished products. Additionally, iron oxides combined with the titanium dioxide coating can create a two-tone or luster effect. A variety of metallic and bright colors can be created using the pearlescent coating effect.

(Emulsions)

Emulsions are also common in the chemistry of cosmetics. The majority of creams and lotions are emulsions. An emulsion can be defined simply as two immiscible fluids where one liquid is dispersed as fine droplets in the other. Typically, creating a lotion or cream takes three phases: a water phase, an oil phase, and a finishing phase that occurs after your emulsion has cooled.
But, oil and water don’t mix. This is because water is a polar molecule – its structure means that is has a positive charge one end and a negative charge the other end. Water molecules stick together because the positive end of one water molecule is attracted to the negative end of another. However, the structure of an oil molecule is non polar. Its charge is evenly balanced rather than having one positive and one negative end. This means oil molecules are more attracted to other oil molecules than water molecules, and water molecules are more attracted to each other than oil, so the two never mix.
Since water and oil do not mix but stay separated, an additional agent (emulsifier) is necessary to form a homogenous mixture keeping water and oil together. Without an emulsifier, you can mix the water and oil together but as soon as you stop, they fall out and separate back to oil floating on water.
In cosmetic chemistry, we use ’emulsions’ to blend two immiscible (unblendable) liquids together. An emulsifier stabilizes an emulsion by increasing its kinetic stability. Emulsifiers work because their molecules have two parts: one part is attracted to water and one part is attracted to oil. There are two types of emulsions: Oil in Water and Water in Oil. An oil in water emulsion is composed of an oil phase dispersed in an aqueous one. It is known as a direct emulsion. Stabilization of O/W emulsion is often performed with hydrophilic-hydrophobic particles. The hydrophilic end of the emulsifier molecule has an affinity for water, and the hydrophobic end is drawn to the fat/oil. By vigorously mixing the emulsifier with the water and oil, it creates a stable emulsion. And then the water in oil emulsion is composed of an aqueous phase dispersed in the oil phase.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

We are one of the many women that wear makeup and use cosmetics, as we have many chemical ingredients on our bodies right now! I have about 273 chemicals (Sydney) in my body, and I have 219 chemicals (Hannah) in me. It is important for us to be cautious about what ingredients we put in our bodies, along with the types of chemicals and how they could affect us. In addition, it is important to know how some of the products we put on our faces are made.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Alchemy

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Wed, 05 Jul 2023 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

The Chemistry of Alchemy

Episode #13

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Cameron Scott/Anish Ponnam and we are your hosts for episode #19, The Chemistry of Alchemy. Today we will be discussing the chemical origins of one of the most famous myths of all time.

Segment 1: Introduction to Alchemy

What is the legend of the alchemists?:

- The history of the word alchemy comes from 332 BC when Alexander the Great conquered Egypt and this led Greek concepts of Fire, Earth, Air, and Water to merge with the Egyptian science of the time. This merging of ideologies led way to concept of Khemia, which was the Greek word for Egypt. Finally, when the Arabs occupied Egypt in the 7th century, they decided to add the prefix “al-” to the word “Khemia” and this led to Alkhemia being made and is now believed to be the origin of the word Alchemy.

- Although alchemy was thought to be originated in Egypt, China also developed their own method of alchemy through the use of minerals and plants which was thought to prolong life and also the use of exercise techniques, such as Qigong, to manipulate the chi or life force of the body.

- India also developed their own version of alchemy which was very similar to that of China’s in which they wanted to use it to prolong life by purifying the body. Due to their curiosity with Alchemy, the indians were able to invent steel which is used in everyday construction as the framework of buildings.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Alchemy

When lead acetate and potassium iodide are mixed in solution, a precipitate of lead iodide is formed.

Explain how lead acetate was available during the alchemy times

Produced by first burning elemental lead (creating lead oxide), then boiling it in acetic acid. In other words, vinegar.
It has been documented that the romans used lead acetate as a sweetner, and the remains of those who lived during that time period, even Pope Clement II, have been found to indicate death by lead acetate poisoning.

Explain how Potassium iodide was available in the alchemy times

KI has a high natural source in kelp, which draws in high concentrations of iodine from seawater during its photosynthesis process.
KI can be extracted from seaweed by singeing it down to ash, then filtering the ash with distilled water to separate it from charcoal particles
Mediterranean societies have been documented using seaweed for food and medical production
It is plausible that an alchemist was able to derive KI from seaweed

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Pretty much its cool as hell and the solution you get from the experiment is beautiful.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.livescience.com/39314-alchemy.html

https://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html#:~:text=Alchemy%20was%20born%20in%20ancient,and%20a%20goal%20of%20immortality. - Brief History of Alchemy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead(II)_acetate

Testing A Possible Origin To Alchemy: The Golden Rain Experiment

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Film Cameras

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Wed, 05 Jul 2023 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

The Chemistry Behind Film Cameras

Episode #12

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Riya Mishra and Summer Wang and we are your hosts for episode #12 called the Chemistry Behind Film Development. Today we will be discussing what makes film cameras, such as Polaroids, or Canon Cameras, work.

Segment 1: Introduction to Film Cameras

In this episode, we’re going to be talking about how film is developed, and the chemical processes which occur every step of the way. Thanks to inventor and scientist Edwin H. Land, people can enjoy the look of a film picture without having to go through the process of developing film. Picture dark room photography, the low lights, the chemicals, and the long-long process before you get your photos. Now imagine that condensed into a tiny camera, weeks of work can be completed in a minute. This popular camera, made by popular companies like Polaroid and Instax provides a physical, and tangible memento in an instant. It seems like magic… but it’s all chemistry.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Film Cameras

When you hit ‘click’ on your camera, how does the photographic film develop on an atomic level? Firstly, it’s important to know that film is covered in a crystalline solid, usually a silver halide (so silver and a halogen). The most popular choice for film is silver bromide (AgBr). When photons from light come into contact with one of the grains, an electron is ejected from the valence levels of the bromine atoms, and onto the conduction band of the crystal. Then, the electron combines with a moving silver ion, and makes atomic silver. When this occurs multiple times, a clump of silver metal is produced. That atomic silver creates dark areas on the paper due to its color. The colorless ion Ag+ gains an electron to form solid silver. This seemingly simple reaction creates the dark colors that you see in your pictures. The formation of silver metal is directly proportional to the intensity of light. This may sound confusing, but it means that more light hitting the film means that area will appear darker when the film is developed. So, if anyone ever tells you to keep your picture in the dark as it develops, you know why.

For non-instant film cameras, once the picture is taken, film must be placed in a developer, or a chemical liquid which makes the concealed image on the film eventually visible. Developer itself can be chemically altered to adjust the rate at which the film develops-mainly with the usage of developing agents. Without developing agents, the process of film development could take hours, or even days! But, with some developing agents, like potassium hydroxide (KOH), this process can be sped up. You see, for film to develop at the quickest rate possible, the developing solution should have a pH between 10-11. This is a pretty high pH, meaning there needs to be a way for film developers to reach that pH without interfering with other parts of the developing process. KOH happens to be an extremely strong alkali, or a strong base. When KOH is added to the film, it produces an alkaline solution on top of the film. This raises the pH, bringing it to that 10-11 pH range which is optimal for development. So, by raising the pH, the entire process is sped up, and chemistry saves us tons of time!

Segment 3: Personal Connections

What interested you in this topic? Why is it important? Anything else you’d like to share.

So, why did we choose this topic?

We actually have a story from last month which really got us thinking about how instant cameras work, and how film develops…

For me, I love movies, and I knew I wanted to research a topic related to filmmaking in some way. I loved learning about the most basic tool for creating a movie, a camera, and really understanding the ways it works on a chemical level. I’ve also always been fascinated by the film development that goes into the creation of older movies and pictures. These chemical processes have been used by filmmakers and photographers for hundreds of years, and it’s interesting to think that the basics of chemistry we’ve learned in school can explain the creation of such beautiful movies or photos.

For me, I felt interested in this topic due to my love for art. Photography is such an interesting and special form of art, and I knew I wanted to learn more about how it works. Also, I’m the kind of person who loves capturing different moments with my friends on my Polaroid, and it was nice to learn about an object that’s given me a physical reminder of some of my favorite memories. Getting to know what really happens when I hit that button on the top of the camera is super interesting!

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://www.britannica.com/technology/technology-of-photography/Instant-picture-photography

https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1085&context=senior_theses#:~:text=Photographic%20film%20and%20paper%20are,molecules%20to%20atomic%20metal%20silver.

https://www.chemistryislife.com/the-chemistry-of-instant-polaroid-film

https://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/everyday-innovations/instant-film.htm

https://dp.la/exhibitions/evolution-personal-camera/polaroid-era#:~:text=The%20inventor%20and%20founder%20of,these%20industries%20was%20instant%20photography.

https://radiopaedia.org/articles/developer-solution?lang=us

https://www.chemeurope.com/en/encyclopedia/Photographic_developer.html#:~:text=In%20film%20developing%2C%20photographic%20developer,silver%20in%20the%20gelatine%20matrix.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Northern Lights

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Wed, 05 Jul 2023 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of the Northern Lights

Episode #11

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Ben Pollara and my name is Megan Meng and we are your host for episode #11 called The Chemistry of the Northern Lights. Today we will be discussing why the Northern Lights occur and the chemistry behind it.

Segment 1: Introduction to Northern Lights

For our segment we will be discussing the Northern lights. Scientifically referred to as Aurora Borealis, the Northern Lights are a natural light phenomenon that appear across Earth's great sky. Auroras display dynamic patterns of brilliant lights that appear as curtains, rays, spirals, or dynamic flickers covering the entire sky.

There are many myths behind the aurora borealis. The Eksimo tribes believed that they could summon the aurora to speak with their dead relatives. Inuit tribes feared the lights and carried knives to protect themselves against the aurora. But one thing is for sure now, all the myths behind the lights are FALSE. The science behind the Aurora Borealis is the TRUTH.

We will cover the origins of solar wind which send charged particles towards the earth. Then we will explain how those charged particles create collisions in our atmosphere that lead to the Northern Lights phenomenon.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Northern Lights

Although the Northern Lights seem too gigantic to comprehend, breaking each process down makes the Northern Lights seem more simple. There are charged particles, collisions, electron excitations, and light waves that all go into the creation of the beautiful Northern Lights.

What is going on on the Sun?
The Sun is made up of helium and hydrogen.
The origin of solar reactions:

-Inside the sun, reactions are always happening. These reactions are called proton-proton fusion!!

Originating in the core of the sun, a lone hydrogen atom fuses with another hydrogen atom. These two protons usually break apart, but sometimes the hydrogen atoms stay fused. Once fused, a single proton transforms into a neutron because of its weaker nuclear force. A third proton then fuses with the proton-neutron pair, creating a helium atom and releasing gamma rays, or sunlight. Finally, two helium atoms collide, which causes two protons to be released and a heavier isotope of Helium.

The two protons then travel towards Earth’s atmosphere, colliding with atoms such as Oxygen and Nitrogen that make up Earth’s upper atmosphere.

. What are solar winds?
Storms on the sun cause solar winds
The solar wind is a continuous stream of charged particles that flows out of the Sun in all directions. The strength of the solar wind varies depending on the activity on the surface of the Sun. The Earth is mostly protected from the solar wind by its strong magnetic field.
So is that why Northern Lights only happen in the north and south pole?
Yes, actually Earth's magnetic field steers the charged particles towards the poles. The shape of Earth's magnetic field creates two auroral ovals above the North and South Magnetic Poles. This is where the charged particles from solar winds tend to be attracted to.
Solar charged molecules strike oxygen atoms and nitrogen atoms in the atmosphere. When the molecules collide, the atoms light up because of the excitation of their electrons!!
Electron excitation: What is it?
When an atom’s electrons are in the lowest energy level, then that atom is in its ground state.
If the electrons absorb energy, they excite and move to a higher energy level.

In the example of the Northern Lights, a charged particle collides with Nitrogen and Oxygen atoms in the atmosphere, exciting their electrons. Once the electron reaches a higher energy level, it loses energy and then falls back to its original energy level. When an electron moves back to its ground state, a photon is emitted with the amount of energy that is the difference between the two energy levels.

If a photon with more energy is released (like if an electron moves from energy level 6 to energy level 1), a light color on the latter half of the spectrum will be shown, like purple or blue. But, if a photon with little energy is released (like if an electron moves from energy level 2 to energy level 1), a light color of red or orange will be shown.

COLORS! !!!!

Since the different atoms in the atmosphere have different electron configurations, they will release different amounts of energy when excited.

Different colors:

1. Oxygen: Green and brownish-red colored lights.

2. Nitrogen: Blue and red colored lights.

3. Other Gasses: Helium and hydrogen emit purple and blue colored lights. There are also other gasses that get excited and emit light in the atmosphere. However, their wavelengths may not fall in the visible electromagnetic spectrum.

Other planets have different auroras This is because they have different atmospheres.
Jupiter’s aurora is blue, and Saturn’s is purple and red.
Auroras are possible on any planet or moon where energetic particles are present in the atmosphere.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Crazily enough the northern lights are almost always present, day and night. 24 hours a day, seven days a week, 365 days a year. These lights are beautiful natural phenomena and give us a sense for how vast and interconnected our galaxy is. The interaction between the atmosphere and the small particles that make it create something so huge that we as puny humans can see it from Earth’s surface with the naked eye.

I would love to see the Northern Lights in my lifetime. They seem so peaceful, yet energetic. Do I believe in any of the old myths about the aurora? No. Do I still think the aurora has an interesting connection to the world we live in? Yes, completely. Although for the past 5 or so minutes we’ve broken down the Northern Lights to only a couple, microscopic reactions, the combination of those reactions give us an amazing sight to be seen. Who wouldn’t want to see the Northern Lights?

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.worldofchemicals.com/675/chemistry-articles/chemistry-of-northern-lights.html

https://atoptics.co.uk/highsky/auror3.htm

https://www.hurtigruten.com/inspiration/experiences/the-northern-lights/myths-legends/

https://www.space.com/15139-northern-lights-auroras-earth-facts-sdcmp.

https://www.loc.gov/everyday-mysteries/astronomy/item/what-are-the-northern-lights/

https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Nuclear_fusion_in_the_Sun

https://digestiblenotes.com/physics/electrons/excitation.php

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Breaking Bad

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Wed, 05 Jul 2023 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Breaking Bad

Episode #10

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Nathan and Lucas and we are your hosts for episode #10 called The Chemistry of breaking bad. Today we will be discussing how Mr Walter White creates his signature blue meth.

Segment 1: Introduction to Breaking Bad

In Breaking Bad there are many episodes where chemistry is incorporated into the show; I mean Walter himself is a chemistry teacher, but nevertheless, chemistry is what makes Breaking Bad, Breaking Bad. In this episode we are going to break down one of the most iconic propsin the show: the infamous blue crystals Walter cooks up

Breaking Bad is a popular tv show, in which the main character, Walter White, a High School Chemistry teacher, starts creating drugs and selling them to make cash after he is informed that he has cancer.

We are going to focus on how blue meth, methylamphetamine, is made and the psychological effects it has. Basically, this is a step-by-step guide on how to make meth. Jk jk, this is just a step-by-step guide, speculating how meth was made in the show

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Blue Meth

Throughout the story, two different methods of synthesis are used:

The first method Walter uses is pseudoephedrine, little Sud. Walter obtains little sud from the over-the-counter drug Sudafed

By combining red phosphorus—gathered from matchbox strike strips—and iodine, a person can create a strong acid removing the little cluster of hydrogen and oxygen that separates Sudafed from meth. Little suds molecular formula is C10H15NO, while the molecular formula of meth is C10H15N. So as you can see the molecular formula between these two are very close.

Reference connection to bonding
This relates to bonding because Methamphetamine, as well as pseudoephedrine, contains carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and oxygen (O) atoms, which are elements commonly involved in covalent bonding.
Reduction is part of this reaction.
We are familiar with reduction from Redox reactions
Reduction is a chemical reaction that involves the gaining of electrons by one of the atoms involved in the reaction between two chemicals.
The pseudophedrine substance undergoes reduction and turns into N-methamphetamine..

The second method Walter uses is a synthesis method from Phenylacetone aka P2P.P2P has a similar shape to methamphetamine and Sudafed. It has a circular carbon loop called a phenyl ring, with a short carbon neck and a few chemical groups attached to it.

It's like a "neck" because it is narrower and shorter compared to the other parts of the molecule.

To convert P2P into meth, you just need to modify the attached chemical groups. However, P2P is hard to get because the DEA knows that P2P is made to make meth. So, White synthesizes his own P2P based on methylamine, acetic acid, and phenylacetic acid.

Methylamine is a colorless gas with a strong scent, frequently used in pharmaceuticals

Acetic acid is similar to Methylamine, except it's a liquid, with a similar scent to vinegar. It is frequently used in pharmaceuticals and condiments

Phenylacetic acid tends to be used in fragrances. It is also found naturally in fruits.

First: tube furnace
A tube furnace is an electric heater thats used to conduct syntheses and purifications of compounds
Next: reductive amination I love animation
Oh no, anyways
Amination is the process by which an amine group is introduced into an organic molecule
Reductive amination is a form of amination that involves the conversion of a carbonyl group to an amine via an intermediate imine. The carbonyl group is most commonly a ketone or an aldehyde.
Phenylacetic acid made by:
First combining chlorine with acetone through alpha halogenation to get Alpha chloracetone
Then combine benzene with Alpha clroacetone to make phenylacetic acid
FYI: Alpha Chloroacetone is an extremely powerful lachrymator (irritates eyes and makes tears flow). It makes regular old 'tear gas', and if ANY of it gets away from you, you'll wish to God it hadn't. Handling that stuff in an 'informal' setting is almost a guarantee that you will have a problem that will advertise your presence to anyone nearby. When he said, "for educational purposes only" he meant it.
Sorry to inform you, but even if you did ignore my warning and try to make meth with this method, you won’t get you blue meth

Segment 3: Personal Connections

We like watching breaking bad
We want to learn about more lab equipment used to synthesize substances
We like chemistry
We like meth
We think it's interesting, because we use it (allegedly)
Personal curiosity
Want to know how to make meth

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.chemistryviews.org/details/ezine/5416791/The_Chemistry_of_Breaking_Bad/

https://www.britannica.com/science/acetic-acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tube_furnace

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Chemistry of Wine Production

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Wed, 05 Jul 2023 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

The Chemistry of Wine

Episode #9

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Erin Goldsmith and Gianluca Procaccini, and we are your hosts for episode 9 of Chemistry Connections. Today we will be discussing the chemistry of red wine.

Segment 1: Introduction to Red Wine Production

In this episode, we will be covering the chemistry of red wine production. We will mainly be discussing the fermentation process that turns the grapes into wine, after the harvesting process, prior to bottling the wine.

To start, we’ll define some key terms:

Ethanol is the form of alcohol that is in wine. Typically in a range anywhere between 7-15 percent.

Tannic acid aka tannins are a naturally occurring molecule which cause a dry feeling in your mouth and are bitter when ingested. Tannins can be extracted from skins, seeds, bark, and plant stems.

Tartaric acid is the one of the components in wine that controls the overall acidity. Too much can cause an overly tart, sharp wine; while too little can cause a wine that is flat and bland.

Sulfites are the component of wine that act as a preservative and an agent that halts the fermentation process which can help protect the wine against potential oxidation or bacterial exposure which could occur at various stages of the winemaking process.

Malic acid is another acid found in grapes that is primarily responsible for sour flavors, its concentration decreases as a grape ripens.

Also, we’ll discuss the origins of wine. Wine was first created in Georgia in 6000 BCE by accident. When stored grapes ended up getting fermented by naturally occuring yeast. After this, yeast became domesticated and spread throughout the Caucuses and then moved into Europe.

Segment 2: Personal Connections

Erin was interested in researching the chemistry of wine after watching Star Trek Picard. In the first season, Captain Jean-Luc Picard has retired to the French countryside, and now makes wine. The quality of Picard’s wine becomes a running joke in later seasons.

Gianluca is interested in researching winemaking because of the 100 Days winemaking simulator video game.

Wine production is an important part of many lives. The wine industry spans multiple countries, continents, and cultures. It is a beverage that has historically brought people together, and has played a vital role in community building across many centuries and places. Wine, along with other forms of alcohol, was used as a main source of water before water purification methods were perfected. It has historical significance that can not be defined but has provided the lifeblood for many businesses, religious ceremonies, and social gatherings.

Segment 3: The Chemistry Behind Red Wine Production

We will be discussing the process behind wine production which include the following steps.

Crushing
Primary Fermentation
Cold Stabilization
Secondary/Malolactic Fermentation

The purpose of this process is to release the juice from the grapes, and use the sugar in the fruit to produce the alcohol found in wine. The fermentation process is initiated by certain types of yeast, which is controlled in steps like primary fermentation, secondary/malolactic fermentation. The levels of fermentation can affect the taste and alcohol level of the final product.

2 AP Chemistry topics discussed in this episode:

When grapes begin the fermentation process, many acids are released in the form of tannic, malic, and tartaric acids. These acids help contribute to the different aspects of red wine such as bitterness, sourness and acidity respectively.
Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substances through the action of enzymes. Yeast helps convert the sugar in grapes into alcohol and carbon dioxide during the fermentation process of winemaking

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

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Chemistry of Soda

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Wed, 05 Jul 2023 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Soda

Episode #8

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Neha and Nikhil and we are your hosts for episode #8 called Chemistry of Soda. Today we will be discussing basically that: the chemistry involved in soda.

Segment 1: Introduction to Soda

Soda is a fizzy beverage that people love to drink, ourselves included
There are many different kinds of soda. To name a couple:
Coke
Fanta
Root beer
Pepsi
And more
You can find it at any local grocery store
It is an enjoyable drink due to its carbonation and the sting it has on your tongue, which we will go into depth about shortly

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Soda

Topic 1: Equilibrium

First, let’s talk about the fizz in soda
Citric acid reacts with the carbonate in bicarbonate of soda to form carbon dioxide gas
These bubbles of carbon dioxide gas are what make your drink fizzy
These molecules of carbon dioxide are thoroughly mixed and dissolved into the water in the soda pop
This is known as carbonation
Regarding carbonation, it is important to note:
Carbon dioxide doesn’t easily dissolve in water under everyday conditions
Manufacturers have to increase the pressure in the can and keep it at a low temperature so water molecules can trap lots of carbon dioxide molecules
They also use pressure to put more gas in water than it could normally hold at that temperature
Therefore, if the soda can warms up a bit or the can is shaken, pressure goes up and extra gas is ready to come up
So opening the can releases pressure, and soda shoots out
This is why the can is sealed so that it is airtight. That way, the inside of the can maintains enough pressure to prevent extra carbon dioxide molecules from escaping
Talking about the can being sealed airtight, inside the can, carbon dioxide exists in two forms: some dissolves in water and some sits in gas form between the top of the can and the liquid
When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, water and gaseous carbon dioxide react to form a dilute solution of carbonic acid (H2CO3)
This reaction is reversible
When the can of soda is sealed, the high pressure inside the can forces the chemical reaction to the right (forward reaction)
This forward reaction continues until equilibrium is reached
However, once you open can, pressure is released and the reaction shifts to the left (so reverse reaction occurs)
In the reverse reaction, water and carbon dioxide are formed
This is because the gaseous carbon dioxide at the top of the can escapes when you open the can
The can is no longer under pressure if it is open, so dissolved carbon dioxide starts coming out of the solution (reverse reaction)
Bubbles form which release the carbon dioxide into the air
The escaping carbon dioxide lowers the concentration of carbon dioxide in the drink, so carbonic acid turns back to carbon dioxide and water which results in a new eqm
Now that we’re on the topic of bubbles that release carbon dioxide, let's talk about the fizz of soda going away with time
I think it’s known to most people, excluding Nikhil, that fizzy soda tastes better than flat soda
In a fizzy drink, dilute carbonic acid creates a slight burning sensation on your tongue, which is enjoyable to some
This doesn’t happen with a flat drink though
Let’s start with how the drink becomes flat
If you open a soda can or bottle, the carbon dioxide begins to come out of the soda and into the air
Eventually, enough carbon dioxide will come out and the soda will become flat
When soda is flat, carbon dioxide continually escapes which is why there is no stinging sensation when soda is flat
Let’s recall the reaction from earlier where water and carbon dioxide react to form carbonic acid
As carbon dioxide bubbles away from liquid, the reactants and products move again towards equilibrium which causes the reverse reaction to take over since carbon dioxide, a reactant, is going away so the reaction proceeds in that direction to create more of it
This causes carbonic acid concentration to get lower and lower
Therefore, as the amount of carbonic acid in the beverage goes down, so does the soda’s ability to bring about the tingling sensation on your tongue

Topic 2: Acidity/pH

Now that we’ve talked about carbonic acid, let’s talk about other acids in soda
Phosphoric acid and citric acid are added as preservatives and flavor enhancers
Citric acid specifically can bind to calcium and leach it out of teeth, which is dangerous
Every soda on the market has a pH below 4, most between 2.5 to 3.5
The acidic pH of soda makes it dangerous for teeth
This is because acid is an instrumental part of the cavity process
The acidic pH of soda gives bacteria even more power to cause cavities by lowering the pH in the mouth and weakening enamel,
Eventually, the enamel gets weak to the point where it cannot fight the acid attacks of bacteria well
Sugar in soda also feeds bacteria, which produce acid that dissolves enamel
These sugars in soda include a mixture of a sugar called glucose and another called fructose
These wo sugars attach to each other to make another sugar called sucrose
Anyway, back to the acidity of soda
The acidity of soda and absorption of carbon dioxide both can also cause a significant decrease in blood pH
This lower blood pH can possibly be associated with many diseases (including incurable cancer) because the body needs an alkaline environment for good health

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Soda is one of my favorite drinks (in my top 3)
So we thought it would be cool to take a dive into the chemistry behind soda, especially with the fizz since Neha likes fizzy soda but Nikhil does not
It was interesting to find out how the fizz works and why it fades away as time goes on
We really just chose it because it was a fun topic and soda is still something we drink weekly so it kind of is still a big part of our lives, even if it isn’t in a significant way

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.york.ac.uk/res/sots/activities/itsagas.htm#:~:text=The%20citric%20acid%20reacts%20with,what%20make%20your%20drink%20fizzy.

https://www.acs.org/education/whatischemistry/adventures-in-chemistry/secret-science-stuff/soda-pop.html

https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/stem-in-context/chemistry-pop

http://ijariie.com/AdminUploadPdf/Chemistry_of_Soft_Drinks_ijariie11653.pdf

https://www.prodentcare.com/blog/why-soda-is-terrible-for-your-teeth#:~:text=What%20makes%20soda%20acidic%3F,as%20preservatives%20and%20flavor%20enhancers.

https://www.premierdentalohio.com/blog/effects-of-drinking-pop-soda-on-dental-health#:~:text=Acidic%20pH,battery%20acid%20is%20about%201.0.

https://www.medindia.net/patients/lifestyleandwellness/colas-are-bad-for-health-in-the-long-run.htm#:~:text=Carbon%20dioxide%20is%20the%20end,the%20blood%20making%20it%20acidic.

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Quantum Chemistry

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Wed, 05 Jul 2023 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Quantum Chemistry

Episode #7

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Owen Mahan and I am your host for episode #7 called Quantum Chemistry. Today I will be discussing how the effects of quantum mechanics lead to chemistry.

Segment 1: Introduction to Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics is the mechanism behind the world on the smallest scale
QM acts on the smallest scale, classical mechanics on our scale, relativity on a large scale
Quantum comes from the fact that things are quantized
Energy, charge, etc can only have certain integer multiples of quantities
Schrodinger equation (or the wave function) means the values of quantum systems are only probabilistic
Heisenberg uncertainty principle means you can’t know everything about a system
Pauli exclusion principle says that multiple of the same fermion can’t exist at the same time
Fermions have ½ integer spin (electrons, quarks, nucleons by extension, etc) while bosons have whole integer spin (photons, gluons, etc)

Segment 2: Quantum Effects on Chemistry

Bonding/Potential Energy
All chemical interactions are based on quantum mechanics
Bonding occurs because of low potential energy states and electron clouds form because of that
Metallic bonding was used to discover QM via photoelectric effect (Einstein)
A solution to the schrodinger equation using Born-Oppenheimer methods is what gives the energy vs nuclear distance graph (as seen on the AP exam)
Overlapping is the process by which electron clouds enter a newly favorable state as atoms bond
Resonance structures are superpositions of electrons within molecules which create multiple simultaneous overlapping cloud structures
Orbitals occur because of spin mechanics as ½ spin particles cannot be indistinguishable, so a max of two electrons (½ and -½ spin respectively) can occupy an orbital
Helium superfluid occurs because He-4 atoms have 0 combined spin so can fall into the same states
Neutron stars (the densest things in the universe) occur because the pressure of fermions not wanting to occupy the same state barely overcomes the gravitational pressure
Entropy - 34 min
Entropy can be thought of as an effect of quantum mechanics
The potential number of states determines the entropy of a system
A system seemingly in perfect order at a moment in time can still have the same entropy as a “disordered” permutation of the same system
Gas mixtures can at one point be perfectly separated but if it is not locked into that state it has the same entropy as any mixed state of the same system
It is the information “hidden” by the system, called Von Neumann entropy
Interesting applications include black holes, as information is seemingly lost
Resolved by the idea that entropy is hidden information on the surface area of the black hole which is released via Hawking radiation

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Fundamental physics is the most important branch of science to pushing technology forward
Relates to literally all other fields of science
I find it very interesting because there is so much depth you can go into
Explains questions about other fields
Quantum chemistry is especially interesting because being able to understand what creates chemical phenomena allows for a better understanding of the phenomena themselves

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/photoelectric-effect

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Quantum_Mechanics/02._Fundamental_Concepts_of_Quantum_Mechanics/Heisenberg's_Uncertainty_Principle

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Chemistry of Venomous Snakes

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Wed, 05 Jul 2023 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Snake Venom

Episode # 6

Segment 1: Introduction to Snake Venoms

2 Main categories of venomous snakes
Elapids
Elapids
Any of 300 species of venomous snakes (all venomous)
Short, fixed fangs at the front of the Jaw
Long, slender bodies with small heads
Mostly lay eggs, but a few do bear living young (largely only Australian species)
Bite with a downward strike, and often chew prey to envenomate
Bite relatively painless, but can kill quickly through paralysis of heart and lung muscles
Cobra relatives
Talk about fang structure
General characteristics
Viperids (Vipers)
Over 200 related species
Long, hollow fangs that are folded back to the roof of the mouth until striking
Some species, known as pit vipers, have a temperature-sensing organ that allows them to hunt warm-blooded prey even when they cannot see
Large venom glands lead to a more triangular or pear-shaped head
Fang structure and general characteristics

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Snake Venoms

Have a natural transition into an example… no need to say “segment 2”

Provide detailed explanations of the chemistry that is related to your topic.

Remember that you must have a minimum of 2 topics from ap chem that you can explain here as related to your episode

Viperid and elapid venom mechanism of action
Viperid - hemolytic and necrotic
How and why
Specific example - Saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus)
Affects blood circulation, causing severe tissue and organ damage.
Certain proteins prevent blood coagulation by preferentially binding to prothrombin, cleaving it into meizothrombin, which cannot be used along the typical clotting pathway
Leads to catastrophic internal bleeding and hemmorhage, which in turn leads to shock when too much blood has left the circulatory system
Reversed with antivenom
Elapid - typically neurotoxic
How and why
Discuss neurochemistry of neurotoxins, why toxin binds to receptors
Go in detail with one example - Inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus)
LD50 of 0.025 mg/kg in mice, 0.01 mg/kg in bovine serum
Venom primarily kills through neurotoxins
Presynaptic - paradoxin
Blocks release of acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter responsible for muscle contraction
Depolarizes the neuron, preventing the firing of action potentials
One of the most potent, if not most potent, presynaptic neurotoxins known to man, but still largely unknown in function
Believed to fuse ACh-containing vesicles to the presynaptic membrane, and prevent recycling of already-used vesicles
Affects the permeability of the phospholipid membrane through altering structure as it binds to the surface.
Postsynaptic - oxylepitoxin 1, alpha oxytoxin 1, alpha-scutoxin 1
Bind to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in muscles antagonistically, causing inhibition of the receptor
Prevent the reception of a signal to move
Two types of receptors, nicotinic and muscarinic
Nicotinic in central nervous system, muscarinic in peripheral nervous system and associated with autonomous nervous system and organs
Only treatment is to use a mechanical ventilator and administer carbachol

Segment 3: Personal Connections

I have always been interested in snakes, especially

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0028390807000056

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17313963/

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "elapid". Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 Jun. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/animal/elapid . Accessed 24 May 2023.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "viper". Encyclopedia Britannica, 21 Apr. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/animal/viper-snake . Accessed 24 May 2023.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echis_carinatus#Venom

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16879898/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC310718/#:~:text=These%20potent%20toxins%20bind%20specifically,blocking%20the%20excitation%20of%20muscles.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/866568/

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Chemistry of Antacids

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Wed, 05 Jul 2023 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Antacids

Episode #5

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Janya and Arya and we are your hosts for episode #5 called The Chemistry of Antacids, which is also what we will be discussing today.

Segment 1: Introduction to Antacids

For this segment we are going to be talking about what antacids are, and in what situations they can be used for.

Do you know what antacids are?

Not really….

Well, they are medicines used to treat heartburn and indigestion!

But what is heartburn exactly? Is you’re heart on fire?

Noooo. Heartburn is caused by excess stomach acid that travels up the esophagus.

Sounds gross!

Well, if you want to reduce them, you can reduce the amount of acid in your stomach, by eating less acidic foods for example.

Some acidic foods include tomatoes, oranges, and… chocolate. (yes if you want to have less heartburns, you have to eat less chocolate).

Right, so when you eat less of these foods, the acid won’t have a chance to travel up the esophagus. I get it now!

Antacids also do the same thing, because it reduces the amount of acid that’s in your stomach (technically, the excess acid)

And your problem is solved!

But not really, because this didn’t treat the actual cause of heartburns or indigestion

They usually relieve symptoms for a few hours, so it is not a permanent solution
Antacids can be found in liquid form as well as tablet form, but liquid form works better (don’t really need to say)
Antacids helps to relieve a variety of symptoms such as a burning sensation/pain in your chest/stomach, acidic taste in your mouth, feeling of being bloated.
More serious problems which antacids can help treat include: acid reflux (GERD), stomach lining inflammation (gastritis), and stomach ulcers
Some common active ingredients in antacids include aluminum, calcium, magnesium, and salts (sodium).
These active ingredients help raise the pH level in the stomach, reducing the acidity and providing temporary relief from symptoms. Antacids typically provide quick but short-term relief and are not intended for long-term use. It's important to follow the instructions provided by the manufacturer or consult a healthcare professional for appropriate usage and dosage recommendations.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Antacids

Acid-base reactions (Active ingredients)
There are lots of ways to define acids, bases and acid-base reactions. One of them is called Bronsted-Lowry theory and involves the transfer of a proton. The acid and base react together to form a conjugate base and acid, which remains in the stomach to neutralize the excess acid in the stomach. The bronsted-lowry acid donates a proton, while the bronsted-lowry base accepts a proton, so the conjugate base will accept the proton and neutralize the acid. Often times, these reactions produce a gas (ex: carbon dioxide) and water. In an antacid, the weak base neutralizes the acid that’s in your stomach by stopping the enzyme which creates acid for the break down of food for digestion (known as pepsin). Antacids usually contain various active ingredients, such as aluminum hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate. Almost all antacids act on excess stomach acid by neutralizing it with these weak bases. Strong bases aren’t used because it disrupts the pH of important organs in the body, which could lead to the damage of these organs
CaCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) → H2CO3 (carbonic acid) (aq) + CaCl2 (calcium chloride) (aq)
H2CO3 (aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
This is the reaction between calcium carbonate (an active ingredient in Tums) and HCl
The active ingredients that were mentioned help to maintain the pH stability of the stomach. They help to raise the pH level in the stomach by reducing the acidity and providing relief from the symptoms.
pH scale (Buffer)
The pH scale determines how acidic or basic water is. The range is 0 to 14, with 7 representing neutrality. Acidity is indicated by pH values below 7, whereas baseness is shown by pH values above 7. In reality, pH is a measurement of the amount of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the water.
A buffer is a substance that can withstand a pH shift when acidic or basic substances are added. Small additions of acid or base can be neutralized by it, keeping the pH of the solution largely constant.
A buffer's job in the body is to keep both intracellular and extracellular pH levels within a relatively small range and to resist against pH variations brought on by both internal and external factors.
The buffer that is created in your stomach after taking an antacid table keeps the pH in your stomach acid from changing significantly. That buffer is compose of two particles which are HCO3 (bicarbonate) and CO3 (carbonate)
Antacids contain a buffer that maintains the pH of the stomach. Most of the antacids have a net pH above 7 for the sole purpose of maintaining pH stability in the stomach.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Both of us have an interest in medicine, and this topic interests us as we have had personal experience with using an antacid. We have used it for indigestion and heartburns previously, and has worked very well. Another indirect use of it has been to treat mouth ulcers.

When I had a mouth ulcer, I used antacid by dabbing some on the mouth ulcer, and it worked almost immediately. The pain significantly reduced, and the swelling also reduced over time. My mouth felt chalky due to the base in the antacid, but it significantly helped with reducing the symptoms. It’s important because many people experience indigestion, heartburn, and ulcer everyday, so it’s good that this medicine can treat a very common problem.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

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Chemistry of Cotton Candy Grapes

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Wed, 05 Jul 2023 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Cotton Candy Grapes

Episode # 4

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Olivia, and I am your host for episode 4 called The Chemistry of Cotton Candy Grapes. Today, I will be discussing what acids are within a grape and how cotton candy grapes are made.

Segment 1: Introduction to Cotton Candy Grapes

Cotton Candy grapes are a variation of green grapes whose flavor is compared to the carnival fluffy, sweet confection cotton candy.

The process of turning a regular grocery store grape into a cotton candy grape is called hybridization. The common belief among people is that grapes are produced by injecting artificial flavoring; however, the cotton candy taste is through plant breeding. Hybridization happens between two different grape species; a type of Concord-like grape (like grapes used in Welch's jams, jellies, and juices) and a variety of Vinis vi nif er uh, an everyday grape found at grocery stores across the country.

A Horticulturist is responsible for this process. Horticulturists are specialists with training in plant production and development who monitor and enhance the growth of high-quality food plants, decorative plants, and medicinal herbs.

These medium-sized, oval, or oblong grapes are seasonal fruit. They are also lacking seeds by default. We'll cover everything that makes people wonder about the odd characteristics of these grapes, including their structure and sugar content.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Grapes

First, let's discuss what a grape really is. Grapes are made up of 70-80% water and are made up of acids which include tartaric, malic, and citric acid. Green grapes are more acidic (pH: 2.4). Red grapes (5.5-7) can be neutral. Acids contribute to overall acidity, giving a refreshing and tangy taste.

But what is an acid? An acid is created when substances dissolved in water increase the H+ ions in the solution. Donation of protons by acids (bronsted-Lowry) pH: range 0-14. Acids are less than 7 on a pH scale, and this is determined by H+ concentration. They also have different elements, such as their corrosive nature (ex rocks) and ability to conduct electricity (can conduct when dissolved in H2O). The H acts as a proton donor lowering pH. Acid-Base reactions (react with alkaline substances products are salts and water) (neutralization). There 7 strong acids, and these completely dissociate in H2O, while weak acids only partially dissociate (lower concentration of H+)

Grapes have a pH value that ranges from 1.9 to 4, which makes them an acidic fruit. These acids are at their highest concentration when the grapes are unripe, and acid content decreases as they mature. One of the acids in grapes, malic acid, has an ionizable hydrogen on each end of the molecule. This H dissociates and attaches to water molecules, making H3O+ which the tongue then detects as a sour taste.

Malic acid has 2 ionizable H’s, but why do only those hydrogens break off? First off, the dissociation of H in malic acid or any acid depends on acid strength. A diprotic acid (2 acidic H atoms) can dissociate in aq solution. Because this is a weak acid, and weak acids only partially dissociate, lowering the concentration. Both hydrogens have 2 different Ka values; Ka1 is larger than Ka2, so first, H dissociates faster than other.

In 2011, cotton candy grapes were first introduced to grocery stores. Vitis vinifera, sugars, and esters are responsible for giving their sweet flavor. Glucose and fructose are the main sugar compounds in the juice of grapes. At a ripening stage, the ratio of glucose to fructose is about 1:1; in overripe grapes, the concentration of fructose is greater than that of glucose.

Esters are mainly responsible for the flavoring of cotton candy grapes. An ester is a compound derived from an acid (ethyl acetate) which can be organic or inorganic. H or OH is replaced by R (organyl group), which represents any carbon or carbon chunk. Organic compounds are formed by the reaction between alcohol and acid, contributing to their flavor. Common esters in cotton candy grapes include ethyl butyrate (fruity aromma-reminscent of pineapple) and Ethyl hexanoate- sweet notes. During the ripening process, enzymes that are present in the fruit catalyze the formation of esters through alcohol molecules (naturally present). The presence of specific esters in cotton candy grapes can vary due to genetic factors, environmental conditions, and agricultural practices. Higher levels of esters in different cotton candy flavors are due to sugars and acids, which contribute to the overall taste.

Ethyl butyrate, C6H12O2, is bonded together through covalent bonding.

Pi bonds- overlap atomic orbitals, C double bond O 1 pi, 1 sigma, Sp2 hybridized orbital of O2, Unhybridized p orbital overlaps making pi bonds causing reactivity and chemical properties, allows rotation around sigma bond and behavior

Sigma bonds → C, H, O A sigma (σ) bond is a type of covalent chemical bond formed by overlapping atomic orbitals along the axis connecting the nuclei of two atoms. It is the strongest type of covalent bond and is commonly found in single bonds between atoms.

multiple bonds can be formed between atoms, such as double or triple bonds. These involve the formation of at least one sigma bond and other pi (π) bonds, which result from the parallel overlap of p orbitals. Sigma bonds are always formed first before the pi bonds.

C-c

C-H

C-O (double bonds) →Allow atoms to share electrons, makes covalent bonds

C chain is tetrahedral

C chain on the end is tetrahedral

O-C double bonds, polar. O is negative C is positive

The overall molecule is nonpolar

C-H bonds, C-C bonds, C-O, bonds, O-H bonds

Electrons around O (4)

Segment 3: Personal Connections

My favorite fruit is grapes, and I wanted to know more about the chemistry behind them. I also thought cotton candy grapes were manufactured and injected with flavoring, so I wanted to know how they were made.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35630586/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Candy_grapes

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279408/

https://www.mic.com/life/how-are-cotton-candy-grapes-made-the-mad-science-behind-the-curiously-delicious-designer-fruit-18743823

https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/malic_acid

https://www.google.com/search?q=what+are+cotton+candy+grapes&rlz=1CASFKO_enUS944US947&oq=what+are+cotton+candy&aqs=chrome.0.0i512j69i57j0i512l8.4730j0j4&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8&safe=strict

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Chemistry of Human Decomposition

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Wed, 05 Jul 2023 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

You thought gluten made you bloated????

Episode #12

(Say it very quickly) Warning: There are gruesome topics mentioned in this podcast, so feelings of disgust is natural. This podcast is not meant to joke about human decomposition, but to explain the process in a light-hearted manner. We hope this podcast is educational and that you enjoy.

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Katie Laitusis and I’m Angela Choi and we are your hosts for episode number 12 called You thought gluten made you bloated???? Today we will be discussing Human Decomposition… yuck

Segment 1: Introduction to Human Decomposition

There are 5 stages of human decomposition: the fresh stage (aka autolysis), the bloat stage, active decay, advanced decay, and the dry or skeletonized stage. In this episode we will be focusing on our personal favorites: the bloat stage and advanced decay stage. To start, during the bloat stage the body may double in size, due to the gases, which is why it has a bloated look. During the advanced decay stage, gut bacteria digests intestines and then surrounding tissues, and cartilage. Hair, bones, and ligaments are the only parts of the body that are left over. Insects that chew are attracted to the body during advanced decay like dogs to a bone.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Human Decomposition

Anyways, lets lighten the mood with a quick joke before we get into the chemistry. What do you do with a dead chemist? I don’t know, what? You Barium. HAHAHAHAHHAHAHAHAHAHAHHAHAHAHHAHAHAHAHHAHAH

We will now be talking about the chemistry behind these stages. In the bloating stage, we will talk about gas pressure and how it affects people during decomposition. During bloating, gasses build up and fluids are pushed outside of natural body openings. The bloat phase begins about 3-5 days after death and this occurs when bacteria shifts from aerobic to anaerobic bacteria, which is when they don’t require oxygen. The bacteria will feed on the body tissues, causing the sugars to ferment them to produce gaseous by-products… probably not the type of passing gas your familiar with. So then what type of gasses are we talking about? Some of the gases produced include methane, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. What else happens during the this stage?During bloating, this stage also will start to attract flies that lay eggs and produce maggots, which will feed on the dead tissue. As more bacteria accumulates, the abdomen and other body parts will grow in size. Anaerobic bacteria converts hemoglobin molecules, which once carried oxygen around the body, into sulfhemoglobin. The presence of this molecule in settled blood gives skin the marbled, greenish-black appearance characteristic of a body undergoing active decomposition. Ewwww… uhhh Cool? And, even better, as the gas pressure continues to build up inside the body, it causes blisters to appear all over the skin surface… and sometimes the abdomen will burst from the pressure. I’m never going to an open casket funeral then. So tell me about the advanced decay stage.

In the fourth stage, which is advanced decay, this process may start about 25-50 days after death. In advanced decay, we will talk about the effect that temperature has on the speed of reactions. During decomposition, the speed of the chemical reactions involved doubles with every 10°C rise in temperature, because when particles are heated, they move faster within the system, creating more collisions, and an increase in the rate of the reaction. So a cadaver will reach the advanced stage after 16 days or 1.14 fortnights at an average daily temperature of 25°C. However it will take 80 days to reach this stage at an average daily temperature of 5°C. Good thing I don’t live in the desert. The higher the temperatures, the more bacteria in the body will produce gas at a faster rate. This will create more openings in the skin for flies to lay their eggs. A decomposing human body in the earth will eventually release approximately 32g of nitrogen, 10g of phosphorus, 4g of potassium, and 1g of magnesium for every kilogram of dry body mass. Wow, that's a lot of gas! Or is it? How much is a gram of gas? Anyways, that must have some effects on the area… right? Dead bodies can impact the environment, because of chemicals leaking into the soil, which can actchually make it more fertile. Who knew decaying corpses were the secret to solving climate change? Not me :D

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Now its time to get personal…We have always been interested in forensics from watching TV shows like Criminal Minds, and took the Forensic Science course during high school. In this course we went over how people look during death such as rigor mortis, but never went over different stages of decomposition, and felt interested in this topic. You also never know when you might stumble across a dead body and want to know why it looks so bloated… and juicy ;)

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.theguardian.com/science/neurophilosophy/2015/may/05/life-after-death#:~:text=Decomposition%20begins%20several%20minutes%20after,begin%20to%20 accumulate%20 inside%20the m

https://bioteamaz.com/phoenix-heat-speeds-up-the-decomposition-process/#:~:text=Bodies%20decompose%20fastest%20in%20hot,occur%20in%20a%20shorter%20timeline.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3377612/

https://alabamabioclean.com/the-5-stages-of-human-decomposition/#:~:text=The%20five%20stages%20of%20human,at%20which%20a%20body%20decomposes

Music Credits

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Bodies (cover) by @Angela Choi and Katie Laitusis

Turn It Down For What (cover) @Angela Choi and Katie Laitusis

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Chemistry of Foxgloves

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Wed, 05 Jul 2023 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

The Chemistry of Foxgloves

Episode #2

Welcome to Chemistry Connections! Our names are Samiyah and Raelynn and we are your hosts for episode #2 called The Chemistry of Foxgloves. Today we will be discussing the scientific properties behind these flowers that have the “power to cure and kill.”

Segment 1: Introduction to Foxgloves

Foxgloves, also known as the Digitalis flowers, are striking plants that look like elegant bunches of upside-down bells, and while their most common species are purple, and are known as the Digitalis purpurea, they come in a variety of colors including white, yellow, and pink amongst others. Native to Europe, western Asia, and northwestern Africa, they can grow up to 60 inches tall, and are biennial or perennial, flowering from June to September.
They have both healing and toxic properties, and are known as the flower with the “power to cure and kill"; it's likely for this reason that they represent insincerity- while on the surface gifting someone a bouquet of these alluring flowers may seem like a nice gesture, it could signify your ill will towards them.
So while compounds synthesized from these beautiful plants may be part of your daily medications- don't gift them to your significant other!

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Foxgloves

Context:
Foxgloves are made up of glycoside molecules, which are steroid groups bonded to a sugar, called digoxin and digitoxin.
The foxglove extract, which contains these glycosides, is known as digitalis, which is named after the plant’s Latin name.
Chemistry topic: bonding/structure
Molecules
Molecules are covalently bonded nonmetals; what sets them apart from ionic bonding or ions is because nonmetals have very high electronegativity values, and as such all of the atoms involved in bonding would pull on the electrons in an equally strong way, thus resulting in strong covalent bonds resulting in molecules.
While looking at the structures of these molecules, digitoxin, and digoxin, it’s also easy to spot the large amount of OH groups that they both possess- indeed, both of them possess almost identical chemical structures, though notably, digoxin has an extra OH group thus causing the differences between the two compounds. This large amount of OH groups leads to increased polarity within both of the glycosides, which leads to increased water solubility. This is because water molecules themselves are also polar, and “like dissolves like” as the saying goes; as such, polar substances like these glycosides are highly soluble in water.
While they have similar properties, digitoxin has a longer half-life than digoxin, making individuals more susceptible to toxicity and thus kidney failure, as it removes the system from the equilibrium needed to maintain health, which we'll discuss shortly.
Chemistry topic: equilibrium
Digoxin is a key compound in the ability of digitalis to provide both beneficial and harmful effects, and does so through the sodium-potassium ion pumps found in heart cells.
These pumps push ions against the concentration gradients to establish a greater concentration of sodium ions outside the cell and a greater concentration of potassium ions inside the cell.
Aids in maintaining cellular equilibrium
Digoxin prevents sodium ions from crossing the cell membrane and exiting the cell, therefore disturbing equilibrium. This causes the intracellular concentration of calcium to increase and the heart beats slower.
Therapeutic effects:
Can be used to treat arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat) and heart failure
Healing properties were introduced by William Withering in his book An Account of the Foxglove (1785)
Developed a cure for dropsy (a condition currently known as “edema” in which the area under the skin swells with fluid)
His work paved the way for the use of foxglove extract in treatments for heart failure
Toxic effects:
Can slow the heart to an extreme, depriving the brain of oxygen
Could result in a heart attack as the body attempts to raise the heart rate in response

Figure 1

Segment 3: Personal Connections

It’s interesting how the unique chemical makeup of a flower can cause it to have such drastically different effects:
Digitalis’ ability to heal or poison comes down to the molecular structure of digitoxin and digoxin and the specific ways in which they interact with cellular components of the human body
Points to the importance of understanding chemistry in order to use these substances properly
Raelynn: “it symbolizes life, what can save you can also kill you”
Samiyah: "fascinating … and I've just loved poison since I was small."

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

Digitalis (Wikipedia)
Foxglove (Britannica)
Foxglove (Woodland Trust)
The Chemistry of Foxgloves—Poison & Medicine (CompoundChem)
The Folklore of Flowers: Belladonna, Foxgloves & Angel's Trumpet (Icy Sedgwick)
Shortage of Digitoxin and Switching to Digoxin in Norway: A Retrospective Study of Blood Samples Submitted to a Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory (Wiley Online Library)
Mechanisms Underlying Anti-hyperalgesic Properties of Kaempferol-3,7-di-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside Isolated from Dryopteris cycadina (ResearchGate)
CK-12 (image)
Chemistry Learner (image)

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Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Polyester

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Wed, 05 Jul 2023 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

The Chemistry of Polyester Shirts & Their Impact On The Environment

Episode #1

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Dorothy Wong and I am your host for episode #1 called The Chemistry of Polyester Shirts & Their Environmental Impact. Today I will be discussing the structure of polyester, how it is made, why it is used to make shirts, and its impact on the environment.

Segment 1: Introduction to Polyester

Polyester is a type of polymer.

Polymers are chains of thousands of monomers, forming a single big molecule.

Monomers are smaller molecules that can react with each other to form polymer chains.
The process is called polymerization.
It is amorphous - polymer chains are randomly bunched together.
The bonds within polymers are covalent (intramolecular forces),
The bonds between polymers are dipole-dipole and London Dispersion (intermolecular forces).

Polyesters, in particular, are made by mixing an alcohol with a carboxylic acid.

This reaction forms an ester functional group which is distinguished by the atom chain C-O-O.
Another property of polyester in general is that it is a thermoplastic polymer - can be remelted and remolded.

Most Common Polyester: Polyethylene Terephthalate

Also known as PET or #1 Recycling Plastic
Properties: High strength, low shrinkage, chemical resistance → This makes it ideal for plastic containing and clothes.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Polyethylene Terephthalate

Process Of Making Polyethylene Terephthalate Fiber

A condensation reaction occurs between ethylene glycol and dimethyl terephthalate.
This ends up becoming a monomer, containing the ester functional group COO (trait of a polyester as stated before).
The monomers react once more with dimethyl terephthalate to form the polymer (PET).
Molten polyethylene is formed into long strands that cool and dry.
They are then broken up again, melted, and spun into fibers.
The final product is polyester fibers that can be dyed and turned into clothing.

Chemical Bonding Within Polyethylene Terephthalate

Covalent Bonds
Explain what covalent bonding is:
This sort of bonding occurs when neither of the two atoms want to part with their own electrons, causing them to share.
This can be found by finding the difference in electronegativity.
One pair of shared electrons makes a single bond, two pairs of sharing electrons make a double bond, three pairs of shared electrons make a triple bond.

Amorphous Solid

Benzene ring limits the mobility of the groups attached
The polymer chains cannot properly arrange themselves in a crystalline structure, contributing to its amorphous structure (blame on the benzene ring)
Amorphous nature allows for transparent appearance → what you see in plastic water bottles
Shirts → They are not transparent, but dyes are added to them to get the desired color

Segment 3: Personal Connections

I am interested in the environment, and the different factors that negatively affect it.

I went to a sustainable polymers camp this past summer. I was intrigued by the large reach that plastic has on the environment. One talk that really caught my eye was the one about microplastic. In this lecture, the professor (Anne McNeil) mentioned that millions of microplastic particles from the synthetic material of shirts are released into the environment for every laundry load. Because I was aware that polyester was one such synthetic material, I thought it would be interesting to look at its structure and properties. It is interesting to see how this is the case.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyester

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate

https://www.compoundchem.com/2022/12/15/football-shirt-2022/

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Esters/Reactivity_of_Esters/Polyesters

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/polyester-fiber

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/polyethylene-terephthalate

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/covalent-bond#:~:text=A%20covalent%20bond%20consists%20of,two%20nuclei%20are%20bonding%20electrons.

https://sewport.com/fabrics-directory/polyester-fabric#:~:text=Chemically%2C%20polyester%20is%20a%20polymer,be%20derived%20from%20other%20sources.

https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Polymer

https://study.com/academy/lesson/polyethylene-terephthalate-structure-uses.html

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

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Research

Polyesters:

Type of polymer - a chain of monomers; a singular molecule made up of thousands of covalently bonded atoms
Amorphous
Manufactured by mixing an alcohol and carboxylic acid
Contains the ester functional group
Thermoplastic polymer, meaning that it can be remelted and remolded
Most well known polyester is polyethylene terephthalate
Also known as PET
Recycling Number: 1

Polyethylene Terephthalate

Properties: high strength, low shrinkage, chemical resistance → great for clothing
Used for food and drink containers, plastic bottles, and clothing
Intermolecular Forces: dipole-dipole forces between carbon and oxygen atoms, london dispersion forces
Process of Making Polyethylene Terephthalate:
Condensation reaction between ethylene glycol and dimethyl terephthalate
Ends up becoming a monomer, containing the ester functional group COO (trait of a polyester)
Monomer reacts once more with dimethyl terephthalate to form the polymer

Chemistry of Acid Reflux

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 01 Jul 2022 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

The Chemistry Behind Acid Reflux

Episode #16

Welcome to episode #16 of Chemistry Connections. We’re your hosts, Jeri Nestle and Andrew McManimon. In today’s episode, “The Chemistry Behind Acid Reflux,” we’ll be discussing Acid Reflux: what causes it, how it can be treated, and the chemistry behind it all.

Segment 1: Introduction to Acid Reflux

We’ll start with the definition of acid reflux…

So, what is acid reflux?
commonly called gastroesophageal reflux disease or simply GERD
some background about the condition: is defined as the occurrence when stomach acid comes back up into the esophagus.
symptoms of GERD include heartburn, burning chest pains, and nausea (room for question- Why does it cause heartburn specifically?)
important to make the distinction between acid reflux and GERD- while technically the bodily process that occurs is the same thing, acid reflux is itself temporary, while GERD is chronic.
mechanics of reflux: the lower esophageal sphincter is a ring-shaped muscle that separates the stomach from the esophagus (clarify: multiple sphincters throughout the body)
the job of the sphincter is to keep food down from the food pipe into the stomach, but in acid reflux, the sphincter doesn’t close completely and gastric acid can come back up into the food pipe
It’s interesting because we know what can cause acid reflux, but we don’t know why people develop GERD chronically

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Acid Reflux

Acid reflux chemistry
This stomach acid, which is also called gastric acid, is mainly composed of HCl, and also contains KCl and NaHCl. It is highly acidic, with a pH between 1-2. For listeners who may not be familiar with the pH scale, it is BASED on a scale of 1-14 with pH values of 1-6 being labeled as “acidic” and those with a pH value of 8-14 being considered “alkaline.” 7 is a neutral baseline, in which acidic and alkaline, or basic, substances are compared. A common example of a neutral substance is pure water.
Weird that something so corrosive helps us live, but stomach acid provides a crucial key in our digestive process
because it is highly corrosive, it helps break down the food and substances we consume so our body can further break it down and take what we need from it, like vitamins and minerals. More specifically, it works to denature any consumed protein by decomposing its globular structure into amino acid chains. The low pH value also creates the perfect condition for enzymes in the stomach to function. One of the main types of enzymes in the stomach is called proteases, which work to break the amino acid chains into shorter chains, explaining globular amino acid things or individual amino acids to make digestion easier. These enzymes can only work at a low pH, so it is important to maintain this acidic environment.
Jeri recap in human terms
Human stomachs can contain stomach acid because the stomach lining is resistant to corrosion thanks to the mucus it secretes, but the lining of the esophagus is not. Acid reflux can usually be treated with an antacid, like Alka Seltzer.
How antacids work to neutralize the HCl in gastric acid
Antacids like Alka Seltzer, are doses of mild bases that react with the excess HCl in acid-base neutralization reactions to neutralize the acidity of the gastric acid, returning the body back to normal conditions
Ex. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is an active ingredient found in Tums that neutralizes HCl
The acid-base reaction converts carbonic acid into CO2 into H2O
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (calcium chloride) (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
MgCO3 and NaHCO3 are also common substances used to neutralize the stomach acid

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Jeri, personal connection
has some LPR laryngopharyngeal reflux - acid reflux into the larynx/throat
a lot of people have this, but don’t notice it because it’s considered “silent” acid reflux
mostly people who sing/speak a lot and publicly notice it
was interested in the chemistry behind acid reflux
a lot of conflicting info online about home remedies and how to combat acid with acidic or alkaline foods/ingredients
Some home remedies include consuming highly acidic substances

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://sciencedebate.com/science-blog/acid-reflux-what-it

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_A_Molecular_Approach_(Tro)/16%3A_Acids_and_Bases/16.01%3A_Heartburn#:~:text=Heartburn%20is%20caused%20by%20a,of%20us%20 are%20 familiar%20with.

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/322879

https://youtu.be/bUrZKQzrixI

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Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Poisonous Plants

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 01 Jul 2022 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Poisonous Plants

Episode #15

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Brian Chin and I am your host for episode 15 called Chemistry of Poisonous Plants. My name is Rey Riordan and I am also your host for this episode. Today we will be discussing various poisonous plants and how chemistry explains why they’re so dangerous.

Segment 1: Introduction to Chemistry of Poisonous Plants

Most people instantly think of poison ivy when they think of poisonous plants. The familiar itchiness, irritation, red skin. However, there are many other poisonous plants out there that are much more deadly. “Poisonous plants” are formally defined as plants that when touched or eaten in sufficient quantities are harmful or even fatal to organisms.

So, let’s talk about some examples, starting with the water hemlock:

Water hemlock has many nicknames: beaver poison, devil’s flower, break-your-mother’s-heart
According to Christianity, the water hemlock, which is native to the Mediterranean region, became poisonous after growing on the hillside of Jesus’ crucifixion
On the outside, the water hemlock also gives signs of its poisonous nature. Its stem is streaked with purple and red and the leaves release an odor when crushed
This plant famously killed the philosopher Socrates after he drank hemlock tea - Socrates felt numbing sensation that spread throughout body before he died

The stinging nettle is another extremely dangerous plant:

The nettle, which can grow up to 7 feet tall, has stinging hairs known as trichomes on its green leaves (can be as big as 6 inches) and stem
These trichomes inject harmful chemicals upon contact
Because of its unique effects, the nettle has even impacted Western culture to a certain extent
Aesop had a fable called “The Boy and the Nettle”
The English word “nettled,” which denotes someone who’s irritated, is also derived from the properties of the stinging nettle

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Poisonous Plants

Poison ivy
Oxidation of urushiol in body
Urushiol is the chemical in poison ivy that causes the allergic reaction. It’s a type of molecule known as a catechol, which means that it has a ring of six carbon atoms with alcohol (OH) groups attached to two of them, and then a string of trailing hydrocarbons (as shown in diagram).
When something brushes up against poison ivy and urushiol comes into contact with air as a result, it reacts with the O2 molecules in the air and becomes oxidized. The H atoms are broken off, which means that an electron is lost and the oxidation number of O increases from -2 to -1 to compensate (this is what oxidation is).
Oxidized urushiol with two double-bonded oxygens is then able to react with and stick to certain proteins of the skin. When reacted with a protein, urushiol acts as a hapten, which means that it causes an immune system response by changing the shape of the protein and making it seem foreign and dangerous to the body. This is what actually causes the allergic reaction of rashes and blisters that poison ivy is so well-known for.
Water hemlock
Cicutoxin
Cicutoxin often more concentrated in hemlock’s roots - so don’t touch roots
Cicutoxin’s chemical formula is C17H22O2
Qualifies as alcohol because two hydroxyl groups (OHs) attached to carbon atoms that are part of a larger hydrocarbon chain
Chemically, cicutoxin causes neuronal depolarization - essentially, the electric charge in a neuron cell changes so inside of cell becomes less negative than outside
Too much neuronal depolarization causes cells to become overactive - overactive cells is the reason why cicutoxin damages nervous system and causes seizures - if seizures aren’t treated, can lead to swelling in brain, muscle breakdown, blood becoming too acidic
Other symptoms include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, tremors
Mass spectrometry
Hospital labs use mass spectrums to see whether or not patient’s blood has cicutoxin
After substance put in mass spectrometer, mass spectrum is produced. Mass spectrums essentially show peaks - each peak represents an atom or atoms (which can be identified using the mass) - height of peak shows abundance of atom/atoms
When put in mass spectrum, cicutoxin always shows up the same way (kinda like person’s fingerprint) - same peaks when cicutoxin breaks up into smaller parts - doctors can thus easily identify cicutoxin even if other substances in blood
Stinging nettle
Neurotransmitters: histamine, acetylcholine, serotonin
To cause pain, the stinging nettle mainly injects neurotransmitters such as histamine, acetylcholine, and serotonin. Neurotransmitters usually function as chemical messengers in the body by carrying chemical signals, but in this case they function as irritants and cause a painful reaction.
For example, histamine normally responds to allergies and causes inflammation in the affected area, allowing the immune system to do its repair work. However, when injected unnecessarily, it results in unwanted inflammation and pain.
Acids: formic acid, tartaric acid, oxalic acid (low concentration of formic acid)
The stinging nettle also injects a number of acids, which are thought to either cause pain or extend the pain duration.
Although present in a low concentration in stinging nettles, formic acid is capable of causing a stinging sensation and is present in many poisons such as ant venom. It has a chemical formula of HCOOH, and is an acid because it dissociates in water to form hydronium ions and its conjugate base HCOO-. It has an acid dissociation constant of 1.8 x 10^-4, which refers to the ratio between the products and reactants at equilibrium during its dissociation. With a small dissociation constant, formic acid is a weak acid, meaning that very little of it dissociates in water.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Rey: The topic popped into my head because my father gets hit by poison ivy very frequently after yard work. He constantly complains about the itch and the fact that there is no particularly effective way to treat it. This got me wondering why this was so, and what chemicals were involved in the reaction. In addition, I’ve never gotten a poison ivy rash even while doing similar yard work. Thus, I also wondered whether it was possible to be immune to the reaction-causing chemicals in poison ivy.

Brian: I became interested in this topic after researching more about poisonous plants. It absolutely boggled my mind that some of these tiny, seemingly harmless looking plants could do so much damage on human beings. After finding out that these plants could even cause death, I wanted to research how this could be so. In my opinion, this topic is important because people should be aware that poisonous plants exist and they should be careful when doing things like hiking.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of a Plasma Ball

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 01 Jul 2022 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of a Plasma Ball

Episode #14

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Daniel Wolf and I am your host for episode #14 called Chemistry of a Plasma Ball. Today I will be discussing plasma, electron transitions, ionization energy, and noble gases.

Segment 1: Introduction to The Plasma Ball

In this segment, I want to briefly overview what a plasma ball is and where it came from. Nikola Tesla, a famed scientist for his many breakthroughs in electricity, invented and patented the “plasma lamp” while experimenting with high voltage phenomena. In 1971, another scientist named Bill Parker would invent the modern version of the plasma ball. James Falk would later commercialize it as a novelty toy.

How it works:

A high voltage alternating current is emitted from the small electrode in the center of the plasma globe
The globe itself contains a mixture of inert noble gases in a vacuum-sealed container
The high voltage alternating current ionizes the gas creating plasma, and an electric current is allowed to flow.
Plasma filaments extend from the coil- the lightning effect seen extending from the coil
The color of the light is dependent on the noble gas being ionized in the plasma ball
The flow of electrons and the noble gas involved creates plasma filaments that radiates across the globe
A human is much more conductive than glass, which is why the plasma filaments become a large singular beam, because it's looking for a “ground”

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind the Plasma Ball

There are quite a few connections to chemistry within a plasma ball. For example, the fact that plasma balls contain the fourth state of matter plasma.

Simplified, when a solid is heated it turns into a liquid, when a liquid is heated it turns into a gas, and when a gas is heated it becomes plasma.
It takes around 10,000 K - 100,000 K to create plasma (10-100 electron volts (eV))
Ionization energy is the energy required to remove a single electron from an atom. Plasma is formed when electrons from gas are ionized, creating a soup of electrons and positive ions.
Electricity (a flow of electrons) collides with noble gas atoms in the plasma ball. Electrons attached to the atoms are knocked off. Standard plasma balls contain 2-5 kilowatts of electricity at 30Hz.
Lightning can be seen in the plasma ball due to the properties of plasma, being that it can conduct electricity due to the free-flowing charged particles (cations and electrons). Electrons are held together by electrostatic attractions
Comparing the other states of matter, solids tend to have very packed and tight-fitted particles in a lattice structure. It’s classified by its definite shape and volume.
Liquids have particles that move and slide past each other. There is more freedom in a liquid’s movement, so it has an indefinite shape and volume
Down to the atomic structure, gases tend to have particles that move with higher speed and kinetic energy, there is a great amount of space between particles making the particles much more dispersed. Indefinite shape and volume

What about the different colors of plasma ball lightning. Some plasma balls emit a green color, while others emit a purple color.

Electricity excites the electrons in the noble gas to different orbitals, when these electrons return back to their original orbitals in what’s called an electron transition, a photon is emitted.
A photon is a particle of light and can be treated as such. Essentially the electron transition emits light. The color of light is dependent on the energy difference between two energy levels
Example: an electron transition from the 3rd to the 1st energy level has a greater energy difference than an electron transition from the 2nd to 1st energy level.
Example: neon causes a reddish-orange streamers while a mixture of neon, xenon, and krypton produces green streamers.

Why noble gases? After all, plasma can be created from any gas as long as it's ionized.

Noble gases are considered inert, which means they tend to be very nonreactive
This is because of the full octet that all noble gases share. This means that no more electrons can be added to a noble gas.
Components of plasma ball are mostly metal, so it would be good if the gas inside didn’t react

Segment 3: Personal Connections

I wanted to do this topic because I thought, when I was young, that plasma balls were one of the coolest toys back then, besides a power rangers action figure. For a state of matter that makes up 99.9% of the universe, we don’t see a lot of it on earth. So plasma balls gives us a glimpse into the wonders of plasma.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

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Chemistry of Stars

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 01 Jul 2022 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of the Sun

Episode #13

Segment 1: Introduction to Fusion in the Sun

Welcome to chemistry connections, my name is Tyler Longo
And I am Sathya Kummarapurugu, and we are your hosts for episode #13.
Today we will be discussing the processes that take place in the sun, through a chemistry-focused lens
Before a star is born there are clouds of dust in the area it will be formed. When clouds of dust begin to be pulled together by the force of gravity gaseous stars begin to be formed
As gravity drags these gas particles together making stars, the temperature in the core increases to very high temperatures. As the amount of thermal energy in the core increases the temperature also increases. As temperature increases the avg kinetic energy in the sun’s core increases, and according to the equation KE=0.5mv2 as Kinetic energy increases the velocity of the hydrogen atoms in the core increases. According to the collision theory, when a particle collides with another particle with enough activation energy, a bond may form, releasing energy.
So since the temperature is so high, does that mean that the Hydrogen atoms within these stars begin to collide and form a bond?
Technically, since hydrogen particles are protons, two protons coming close together have a repulsive force between them by Columbus law since both protons are positively charged and particles with the same charge repel each other. Columb’s law states that objects of the same charge repel each other and objects of opposing charge attract each other. This attraction(electrostaticforce) and repulsion are directly proportional to the distance between the particles and charge magnitude. But the strong nuclear force overcomes the repulsive force and the two protons bind together
That’s really only the first step of the process in which hydrogen atoms become helium atoms through fusion. It’s actually a multistep process called a proton-proton chain reaction
So how it works is first, two hydrogen atoms collide together through the power of this force called the strong nuclear force. These are basically just protons.
A proton is composed of an up, up, and down quark. These are one of the fundamental particles of the universe
So when the weak force is applied, this causes an up quark to become a down quark, thus changing the two of the particles from protons to neutrons
Yeah, There are also 4 other fundamental quarks: strange quarks, charm quarks, top quarks, and bottom quarks.
What’s important is that up quarks have a charge of +2/3 and down quarks have a charge of -1/3, which means when two ups and one down come together to form a proton, it has a total charge of +1. Likewise, since a neutron has one up and two downs, it has a charge of 0
These quarks make up the fundamental particles of the universe such as neutrons and protons. Anyway, the protons are brought together by the Strong nuclear force and joined together by the strong nuclear force. The quarks are joined together by the gluons within each proton. When the strong force brings another proton towards the proton and then the protons collide with enough force, the protons stick together because the strong nuclear force joins a gluon to the quarks within the other proton causing the protons to bind and form a helium atom.
The sun conducts nuclear fusion within its core, and these interactions that occur between quarks are central to the fusion process.
When the protons fuse one Helium atom is created. The fusion releases a bunch of thermal energy. When bonds are formed energy is released and to break these bonds energy is required. Forming a bond through the strong nuclear force releases a lot of energy because the strong nuclear force is so strong at that microscopic scale.
In the sun, about 74% of the mass is composed of hydrogen, and about 25% of the mass is composed of helium
That means we can use stoichiometry to figure out the mole ratio between these two elements within the sun. Remember, as we determined before, the isotope of helium found in the sun is helium 4. So using the numbers I said before, if we had a 100 gram sample of sun (lololol), then 74 grams would be hydrogen and 25 grams would be helium.
But since helium is four grams per mole, this means 25 grams of helium equals about six moles of helium.
When you look at the ratio of 74 moles of hydrogen to 6 moles of helium, that comes out to being about 12 moles of hydrogen per mole of helium within the sun
Wait that actually makes so much sense!!!!
Yeah! Thinking back to the proton-proton chain reaction, six hydrogen-1 atoms were needed in the fusion reaction just to produce a helium atom (and also two extra hydrogens), so it makes sense for there to be many more moles of hydrogen than helium in the sun

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Pressure and Thermodynamics in the Sun

Let’s get back to the topic of pressure. PV=nrt is the ideal gas law where P is pressure, V is volume, n is the number of moles, r is the gas constant, and t is the temperature. According to this law, when temperature increases Pressure also increases.
As the temperature increases, the core of a star exerts pressure outward.
Yeah, and This pressure opposes the force of gravity. Since the force of the reaction and the force of gravity are equal and opposite the star is held in a delicate equilibrium and does not collapse in on itself.
Our sun has a surface temperature of around 5,778 K. According to the second law of thermodynamics, entropy always will naturally increase in the universe. Entropy is the amount that heat is dispersed or spread out. Since entropy must always increase in the universe the sun must disperse/transfer its concentration of thermal energy in some way. In space, stars transfer this heat through radiation, since convection or conduction is impossible in a vacuum, which increases entropy since the heat is more dispersed throughout space.
This is a great application of the ideal gas law since the intermolecular forces between hydrogens and heliums are sooo small. I mean, I guess there would be London dispersion forces, but these elements that we are dealing with have such small electron clouds that are barely even polarizable, so their behavior must be so close to that of an ideal gas and they are moving at such high speeds that I guess IMFs don’t play much of a role.
Although it is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe, Hydrogen is finite. The fusion in the sun is represented by the transmutation equation 11H + 11H→22He + heat. Also if you look closely, you’ll notice that this transmutation equation actually uses Isotopic notation. Isotopic notation is where the mass number (amount of protons and neutrons) is written on the top left of the element symbol and the atomic number (amount of protons) is written on the bottom left of the element symbol. Protons dictate what element an atom is. For example, if a particle has one proton it’s a hydrogen atom and if it has two it is a helium atom.
I noticed that you listed heat as a product in that equation. That indicates that the reaction releases energy/heat, and it is exothermic, so the enthalpy, or change in heat energy, is negative. You also mentioned that hydrogen is finite, what does that mean??
That means hydrogen is the limiting reagent, which means it is the reactant that limits the amount of product produced. When the Hydrogen atoms run out the reaction stops.
So at that point, if that reaction stops no more thermal energy can be created.
According to PV=nrt as thermal energy decreases t decreases and P decreases. There will be no more outward pressure created and gravity becomes the dominant force in the star. The star collapses in on itself and explodes in a supernova, more entropy since the explosion spreads out the rest of the thermal energy in the sun.
So when the star runs out of hydrogen to use in the fusion reaction, the pressure decreases because thermal energy runs low and temperature decreases in the core and the star collapses, so it just disperses all of its energy because of entropy. Are there any other ways that a star can die?
Actually yeah: Black holes. D=m/v where m is mass and v is volume. As the star dies it expands and sheds some of its mass. The core, however, maintains most of its mass and when the star is MASSIVE ENOUGH (meaning it has a lot of mass) it has the ability to become a black hole. As the star collapses due to gravity, the volume of the star rapidly decreases while the mass of the core stays relatively constant.
If the volume is rapidly decreasing, with mass staying the same, that must mean the density gets extremely high…
At about 2 x 1019 kg/m3, the star has enough density to become a black hole which terrified me as a child but fascinates me now.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

The topic of stars was mostly your idea, so I’m wondering, how did you come up with the topic??
Well, I never really understood how the sun worked so I wanted to explore something I didn’t know. I knew that fusion would have to go into quantum mechanics a bit so to force myself to learn it I decided to learn more about stars.
Yeah, that's a good point, I didn't know anything about the sun going into this project either, even though it is kind of a pretty big part of our lives. One detail that I kind of skipped over is that, in the proton-proton chain reaction in which protons are fused together, in the process of changing a proton to a neutron, one other product that is released is gamma rays. When leaving the sun, these get converted into lower-energy photons such as ultraviolet rays, which can cause sunburn. That’s an example of how this stuff relates to our experiences in real life.
I also wanted to know what fusion exactly was and how it worked. I also got to learn about quarks and how they are technically the fundamental building blocks of matter.
At the start of the project, I came across an article titled “proton contains more anti-down quarks than anti-up” and I thought it sounded extremely dumb, but now that we learned about quarks, things like this are able to make much more sense
Anyway, Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-run podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

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Chemistry of Seizures

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 01 Jul 2022 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Episode #12

Segment 1: Introduction

Our names are Veer Davda and Ramit Dasika, this is episode number 12 of Chemistry Connections and we will be talking about seizures. Seizures are really scary and for a lot of people it can strike at any time, if you have a seizure disorder, by just playing a video-game or watching T.V can cause a seizure to strike at any moment. What we try to discover in this episode is what the chemistry behind a seizure is and the chemical processes behind the seizure.

1. So- What is a Seizure? A seizure is a symptom in which there is a disturbance in the brain. It leads to changes in mood, behavior, and level of consciousness in the day. It can change your behavior, feelings, and level of responsiveness every minute. During a seizure, there is a sudden intense burst of electricity that disrupts how the brain usually works. This activity can happen on one small part of the brain and last for just a couple of seconds, or it can spread right across the brain and keep going for many minutes.

Now, where that sudden burst of electricity comes from is the question we are trying to figure out and what exactly causes that burst of electricity is what we aim to figure out.

There are also many causes of that burst of electricity, like Chemical weapons such as sarin and VX, and pesticides such as parathion and carbaryl cause hyperstimulation of cholinergic receptors and an increase in excitatory neurotransmission.

Segment 2: Chemistry behind Seizures

Now, let’s take a look at the Chemistry behind Seizures. Ionic Substances or ionic compounds form from ions that are attached together with ionic bonding, which is based on the attraction between the positively charged cation and negatively charged anion. When ionic substances dissolve in water and it becomes a solution, the ionic bonding is broken and the compound dissociates to produce positive and negative ions or cations and anions. These ions that are produced are electrolytes. They are called electrolytes because according to their charge, they will be negatively charged ions(anion) or positively charged ions(cations). They can be ionic or covalent compounds. If it is an ionic compound, the compound of a nonmetal and a metal dissociate to yield its appropriate ions, which are electrolytes. If it is a covalent compound, the covalent bonding between both nonmetals are broken and the negatively charged ions are produced. In Epilepsy, there is an imbalance in the number of electrolytes as it causes sodium disorders (especially hyponatremia), hypocalcemia, and hypomagnesemia. The immediate correction of electrolyte imbalances is crucial in permanent brain damage and drastic consequences due to epilepsy. Medical Conditions like Dehydration can impact electrolyte imbalance.

The only vitamin deficiency known to cause or worsen seizures is a deficiency of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine). This deficiency occurs mainly in newborns and infants and causes seizures that are hard to control.
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sielc.com%2FCompound-Vitamins.html&psig=AOvVaw1STaSg9HhDqUNwTE8ljqpq&ust=1654281013046000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAwQjRxqFwoTCLi3lJazj_gCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
Pyridoxine can be used to which can be classified as C8H11NO3 , it has a carbon chain, with 8 Carbons, since it has a pretty long surface area, due to the long carbon chain, it is more polarizable and has stronger LDF forces, it has some OH bonds attached to the carbons and has CH3 bonds attached to other carbons, making this a very unique molecule. A vitamin B6 deficiency of pyridoxine deficiency can cause seizures.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

What Interests us in this Topic

(Veer)What mainly interested me into this topic was my interest in seizures and how exactly they worked. My mom also works at a hospital in Capital Health and they also deal a lot with seizures and she talks about it a lot, which is what interested me in pursuing this topic.
(Ramit) I was interested in this topic because it is still mostly unknown as the symptoms experienced are odd and are very fatal as it has to deal with negative effects of the brain.

What is this Important to us?

(Veer) This is an extremely important topic because seizures have the ability to kill, knowing what exactly happens with a seizure and how exactly they work is key in order to prevent seizures. I also volunteer as an EMS, so it is extremely helpful to know what exactly happens with a seizure chemically and how to prevent it, in order to help someone
(Ramit) I feel that discussing and analyzing such a topic like seizures is very important because it can be very fatal and as we analyze the causes, we can prevent more epilipsy cases from happening and we can find a solution.

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Chemistry of Computers

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 01 Jul 2022 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Computers

Episode #11

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Alex and Tom and we are your hosts for episode 11 called The Chemistry of Computers. Today we will be discussing how chemistry is essential for the function of computers .

Segment 1: Introduction to Chemistry of Laptops

Computers are heavily present in our society today, they are used in almost all jobs, schools, etc. Our world relies on computers and computers rely on chemistry.

There are several parts of the computer that are necessary for its function, first of which is the motherboard, this is like the nervous system of the computer and it allows all of the different components to communicate with each other.

Central Processing unit or CPU, this is a silicon chip that acts as the brain of the computer, it processes all the data for the computer.
These days most computers store information in a device called a Solid State Drive or SSD, this device holds all the information for the computer.
Alongside these more behind the scenes aspects are the more well known parts of a computer such as the screen or battery.

All of these components use electricity and generate heat, so in order to prevent the computer from getting too hot, they need to be cooled, most commonly by fans.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Computers

Conductors and Semiconductors:

There are several materials that are essential for the function of a computer, some of the materials include silicon, plastic, fiberglass, copper and gold, lithium
These materials are sorted into three categories: Conductors, Semiconductors, and insulators
Conductors are what allow electricity to flow because electrons can transfer from particle to particle
When electricity passes through a conductor it faces little resistance, allowing for uncontrolled free flowing current.
The insulator does not allow electrical current to travel through it since it has high resistance levels.
Semiconductors are a combination of the two, where they allow for the flow of electricity to be controlled. This is done by providing a slightly resistant material.
Almost all computers this is through silicon chips, however pure silicon is typically an insulator. This is because pure silicon is constructed from atoms that contain 4 electrons in the orbital furthest from the atom’s nucleus.
Due to this atomic structure, the silicon atoms covalently bond together to form a crystalline lattice. By themselves this lattice does not conduct electricity, since the electrons are held stable in the rigid structure. In order for silicon to become a semiconductor electrons must be added or subtracted from the silicon lattice.
This process starts with materials that either have three or five electrons that are mixed into the silicon to disrupt the covalent bonds in the crystal lattice structure, this process is called doping. N-type doping uses materials with 5 electrons in the outer orbital, the most common materials used for this are phosphorus and arsenic. These materials add a fifth free electron to the lattice which allows the material to conduct electricity since the electrons are now free flowing.
P-type doping is the same process just with materials that have three electrons in their outer ring, such as boron or gallium. The addition of an atom like this leaves the absence of an electron or a hole through which the free-flowing electron can travel.
N and P type semiconductors are used to create transistors, these small devices are essential for computers.
Transistors act as both an electrical switch as well as an amplifier. They can also be used to retain code as memory blocks, making them crucial to microchip manufacturing, from processors to memory cards.

Light and Screens:

Utilizes liquid crystal molecules
Liquid Crystal molecules are molecules that exist in a state between liquids and solids because they flow like a liquid but still retain the crystal-like arrangements of a solid.
Rod-like molecular structure
Strong Dipole-Dipole bonds
Generally have the same orientation, meaning the molecules point the same way, but they aren’t quite as rigidly organized in a lattice structure like solids. They also have much more of an intrinsic order than liquids.
Essentially, an LED will emit unpolarized light waves that travel in random directions with various orientations. A polarizing filter will only allow light waves with a certain orientation to pass through in order to bring order to polarize the light, meaning to organize them. Another polarizing filter will then be placed on top of the original filter, but turned 90 degrees so that the light waves that have already been polarized will be at the orientation of the first filter, and won’t be able to go through the second. However, Liquid Crystal molecules have an interesting property in which they twist light waves. This means that when these molecules are placed in between the two polarizing filters, they can twist the polarized waves from the first filter to go through the second filter, showing the light waves to whoever is watching. Also, the specific type of Liquid Crystal Molecules used in screens have a positive charge on one end, meaning that an electric field can be applied to the molecule which would disturb its structure and prevent it from twisting the light waves, once again preventing light from passing through the second filter. Based on where light should be shown on the screen, an electric field will be applied to certain areas of LCMs, controlling whether or not light can pass. This process is done in a very small area known as a pixel, and the process is done over the whole screen to have different areas of the screen with light showing and areas where it isn’t.

Batteries:

Pretty much all laptops these days used lithium ion batteries because the are rechargeable and light
A battery is made up of an anode, cathode, separator, electrolyte, and two current collectors (positive and negative).
The anode and cathode store the lithium. The electrolyte carries positively charged lithium ions from the anode to the cathode and vice versa through the separator. The movement of the lithium ions creates free electrons in the anode which creates a charge at the positive current collector. The electrical current then flows from the current collector through a device being powered (cell phone, computer, etc.) to the negative current collector. The separator blocks the flow of electrons inside the battery.
While the battery is discharging and providing an electric current, the anode releases lithium ions to the cathode, generating a flow of electrons from one side to the other. When plugging in the device, the opposite happens: Lithium ions are released by the cathode and received by the anode

Cooling:

All computers require electricity to function, and some computer components require more electricity than others. As electricity passes across circuits and through wires, it meets a natural degree of resistance. The stronger and more powerful the part is the heat it generates This heat creates the necessity for cooling.
There are two main types of cooling in computers, air cooling and water cooling. Water cooling is more efficient than air cooling due to water’s high specific heat or large heat capacity. This means that it takes a lot of energy to change the temperature of water. This chemical property makes it ideal for cooling computer components.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

What interested you in this topic? Why is it important? Anything else you’d like to share.

Speaking of cooling, do you remember when we were struggling to install the fans in the computer we built?
This is important because computers are all around us and are essential to life nowadays
Tom and I find this topic interesting because we both built computers.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-run podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://phys.org/news/2022-02-chemistry-lcd-flat-screen-devices-scientist.html

https://www.britannica.com/science/liquid-crystal/Liquid-crystal-compounds

https://www.edisongroup.com/edison-explains/semiconductors/22298/

https://uh.edu/~chembi/liquidcrystals.pdf

http://www.bigshotcamera.com/learn/lcd-display/liquid-crystal

https://www.energy.gov/eere/articles/how-does-lithium-ion-battery-work

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Chemistry of Mayonnaise

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 01 Jul 2022 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Mayo

Episode #9

Hello, and welcome to Chemistry Connections episode #9. I’m your host Andrew, and today we’ll be discussing the chemistry behind mayonnaise.

Segment 1: Introduction to Mayonnaise

Let’s get started by defining what mayo is. Mayo is made of oil, egg yolks, and a water-based acid like vinegar or lemon juice. Mayo is also an emulsion, which is a mixture of immiscible fluids - ones that do not dissolve in one another. This is achieved by finely dispersing one liquid into tiny droplets that are suspended in the other liquid, but emulsions last only temporarily. The most common emulsions that you’ll see on a daily basis are between oil and water. Emulsions between oil and water include milk, butter, and ice cream - each one has a stable balance of water and fat, which normally do not mix.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Emulsions

Oil, at the molecular level, is a substance called a triglyceride. Triglycerides are formed from glycerol and three fatty acids. These fatty acids are long chains made of carbon and hydrogen atoms, making triglycerides nearly nonpolar. On the other hand, we know that water molecules, or H2O, have a high net dipole moment because of the difference in electronegativity of the hydrogen to oxygen bonds. The oxygen atom in a water molecule has a partial negative charge, while the hydrogen side has a partial positive charge.

You probably know that oil and water don’t mix, and when you try to mix them together in a cup, the oil will rise to the top. We can explain that through the intermolecular forces that exist between each type of molecule. Nonpolar oil molecules will form London dispersion forces. Water molecules will experience hydrogen bonding due to the especially high electronegativity difference across the O-H bond. When we try to mix them, the solute-solvent interactions that form are dipole-induced dipole forces, but these aren’t strong enough to break the solute-solute or solvent-solvent interactions, so we don’t observe solubility.

This is where emulsifiers come in. These substances stabilize the suspension of little oil droplets in water, or vice-versa, so that they do not separate as quickly. Emulsifiers have two ends, allowing them to form a bridge between the two insoluble liquids. One portion is called lipophilic, or oil-attracting, and it is nonpolar, often made up of a hydrocarbon chain. The other end is called hydrophilic, or water-attracting, and it is polar or ionic. The hydrophilic end will form intermolecular forces with water molecules, which can be either ion-dipole or dipole-dipole, that are strong enough to overcome the hydrogen bonds, while the lipophilic end forms London dispersion forces that overcome the forces between oil molecules. When this happens, the emulsifier molecules will form physical barriers around droplets to prevent them from coalescing and breaking the emulsion.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Now that we know the chemistry behind emulsions, we can return to the food that brought us here in the first place: mayo. Mayo has always fascinated me in how it is made, turning liquid ingredients into a thick, spreadable condiment. The principles of intermolecular forces are at work here too!

In mayo, the water comes in the form of lemon juice or vinegar. You mix the liquid acid with egg yolks, which provide the emulsifier. Egg yolks contain lecithin, which are a type of phospholipid, or emulsifying molecule. When you slowly stream in oil, whisking quickly disperses the oil, and the lecithin molecules’ hydrophilic and lipophilic ends work to stably suspend the oil droplets. Eventually, you end up with creamy mayonnaise. By adding more liquid oil, you in fact make the mixture thicker because it becomes much more difficult for the water molecules to flow as they surround the oil droplets.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.ift.org/news-and-publications/food-technology-magazine/issues/2013/august/columns/processing-1

https://www.aocs.org/stay-informed/inform-magazine/featured-articles/emulsions-making-oil-and-water-mix-april-2014?SSO=True

The Food Lab by J. Kenji Lopez Alt

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Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Apollo 11

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 01 Jul 2022 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Apollo 11

Episode #8

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Max Warias and Harris Hamid, and we are your hosts for episode #8 called Chemistry of Apollo 11. Today we will be discussing the chemistry and history of the Apollo 11 Mision/

Segment 1: Introduction to Apollo 11 Mission

Explain what the Apollo mission was and why the US wanted to go to the moon. Discuss the technological advancements at the time and the space race with Russia.
Discuss why it was such a big deal and how big of a success it was.
Under a decade between Kennedy’s speech and the moon landing
Massive importance in tandem with Cold War
There were two main parts to the mission. Getting to get to the moon and getting back home
Leaving Earth: Talk about the Saturn V rocket. rocket propulsion, nose cone with pressure matching with exit gas velocity. Cone volume manipulation. Talking about efficiency
Getting down: Talk about the command module. How it had to disperse heat from reentry going thousands mph. All the drag creates heat which needs a proper heat shield.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind rocket propulsion

Leaving Earth’s Atmosphere

Chemistry of propulsion
Combustion reactions
Fuel consists of a primary fuel, generally a hydrocarbon, and an oxidizing agent, either oxygen or something with oxygen in it, so that it can vaguely follow the outline of a combustion reaction. These reactions are quite violent and release a lot of energy per unit of fuel, making them good for weight efficiency
First stage used kerosene and oxygen in a standard hydrocarbon combustion reaction, producing heated CO2 and H2O as exhaust
The second and third used hydrogen and oxygen gas, also a combustion reaction, but without carbon and only producing water as an exhaust
RCS thrusters for in space maneuvering of the module was a pseudo combustion reaction between monomethyl hydrazine as the fuel and dinitrogen tetroxide oxidizer, as they were easier to store in small quantities
Gas laws
The general idea behind propulsion is the manipulation of gasses, which generally behave according to the equation PV=nRT (Pressure*Volume=amount of gas*temp*constant)
Rocket engines are at peak efficiency when the exhaust has equal pressure to the surrounding atmosphere and the plume is straight and doesn’t deform
To do this, rocket scientists developed rocket nozzles to gradually increase volume to decrease the pressure until it matches the surrounding air
Discuss the 3 stages and fuel within each
Combustion reactions and gas law manipulation

Re-entry into Earth's Atmosphere

Heat dissipation and absorption, enthalpy;
The command module used a heat shield made of phenolic formaldehyde resin which burned and melted away during re-entry, absorbing heat and carrying it with it as it melted and charred off the module. Enthalpy of melting was present here. It ensures that the module doesn't burn up on re-entry
o
The heat shield also had many coverings such as a pore seal, moisture barrier, and silver Mylar thermal coating.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

What interested you in this topic? Why is it important? Anything else you’d like to share.

It was a massive engineering marvel of the 20th century. Going from having a person in space to having people go to the moon and come back.

I’ve been interested in engineering and technology all m life and this was such a massive milestone for not just the US but for mankind.

It reveals the advancements made with technology and how far and wide we can actually reach.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Thalidomide

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 01 Jul 2022 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Pharmaceutical Chemistry

Episode #7

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Eve O’Leary and I am your host for Episode 7 called Pharmaceutical Chemistry. Today I will be discussing The Thalidomide Tragedy.

Segment 1: Introduction to The Thalidomide Tragedy

Developed in Germany in the 1950s, thalidomide is a sedative drug that was administered to pregnant women experiencing morning sickness and insomnia associated with pregnancy. After its five years spent on the market, it was later discovered that the medicine was the cause for babies being born with a rare birth defect, phocomelia, resulting in severely malformed and underdeveloped limbs.

The majority of these deformities occurred in Canada, the United Kingdom, and West Germany.
Thalidomide was never approved for public consumption in the US
The experiments were extremely poorly designed lacking a placebo group, excluding information for how long the treatment had gone on for, and failed to use a double blind procedure.

The drug was withdrawn from shelves by the German distributor, Chemie Grunenthal on November 26, 1961 and was recalled from British shelves on December 2, 1961.

The British Committee on the Safety of Drugs was established in June 1963, offering detailed regulations for the testing of potentially toxic effects on offspring using rats, mice, and rabbits.
Thalidomide cannot be administered to anyone who is possibly or is pregnant, and is instead used to treat a number of cancers and skin conditions such as leprosy.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind The Thalidomide Tragedy

Before we start talking about why thalidomide had the effects that it had, let's start by talking about some of its general properties. Below is the chemical structure of thalidomide compound (C13H10N2O4).

Thalidomide contains several different intermolecular forces:

London Dispersion Forces
Dipole-dipole interactions
Hydrogen bonding
Extremely important in drug design.
More energy is required to break the compounds apart. Has a boiling point of approximately 509.7OC and is insoluble in water

Now that we have a good understanding about the properties of thalidomide, a key understanding of chirality is essential in explaining the issue with the drug. Chirality, key to organic chemistry, is a geometric property used to describe mirror image isomers, called enantiomers, that are not superimposable.

The best analogy for this is your hands. If you were to place the left hand over the right, the spatial arrangement will not be the same.
The nomenclature of chiral molecules is called the R/S system where R stands for “rectus” which means right in Latin and S stands for “sinister.”
Enantiomers share the same physical and reactive properties except for their effect on plane-polarized light.
Thalidomide is a racemic mixture of R and S enantiomers.
The R-enantiomer has sedative properties while the S-enantiomer is teratogenic, meaning that it raises the risk of or causes birth defects.
Specifically, it degrades a cell protein known as SALL4 which is responsible for the full development of limbs and important organs. Unfortunately, the isomers cannot be effectively separated before use as they convert into one another under biological conditions.

See if you can identify the structural difference between the two isomers:

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Thalidomide had a huge impact on the United Kingdom (where my family is from)
My maternal grandmother was actually offered thalidomide when she was pregnant in the 1950s
This past year, I worked as a consulting intern. I was given the opportunity to research and correspond with a number of companies including Bexa, which is a high resolution breast elastography device.
Made me passionate, not only about the biomedical industry, but also women’s healthcare in general.
If I decide to look at a career path in medical law & ethics, I know that this would be a quintessential case.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Thalidomide#section=Structures

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Chirality/Chirality_and_Stereoisomers

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/chirality

https://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.uk/news/sixty-years-on-the-history-of-the-thalidomide-tragedy

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2726808/#:~:text=Hydrogen%2Dbonds%20play%20a%20crucial,target%20molecule%20of%20known%20structure.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligand_(biochemistry)

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Vinyl Records

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 01 Jul 2022 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Vinyl Records

Episode #_6_

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Dominic Chila and I am your host for episode #6 called Chemistry behind Vinyl Records Today I/we will be discussing The history of Vinyl records, how they are made, and how the sound is created.

Segment 1: Introduction to Vinyl Records

Vinyl records have been around for almost a century and still continue to grow in popularity.

In the 1930’s they began as a way to share the love of music with one another and it blossomed into millions of people collecting vinyl records in order to preserve the original sound of the music as the world became digitalized.

When cassettes, cds, and mp3s came around many people decided the age of vinyl had come to an end and went fully digital. After decades of digitalized music became the go to form of music, vinyl saw a resurgence in the late 2010s. January of 2017 had the highest number of vinyl records sold in one month since 1991. 2017 marked the tenth consecutive year of vinyl growth, partially thanks to indie rock, the emergence of more record stores, and the novelty of the format. Today, vinyl records continue to grow in popularity.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Vinyl Record

In Todays podcast I will walk through how vinyl records are made as well as how they are able to produce sound.

Vinyl records are made of a chemical compound called polyvinyl chloride, or PVC. PVC is considered a plastic due to it's malleability and plasticity in it's solid state of matter. In PVC, a CH2 molecule (see chemical formula on screen) is bonded to a CHCl (see chemical formula on screen) through a double bond between the carbon.

The intermolecular forces between molecules of PVC inclue dipole dipole and London disprson forces. London dispersion forces occur in between all molecules. Dipole dipole forces occur when the positive end of a molecule is attracted to the negative end of another. Since PVC is polar it is able to produce dipole dipole forces but it is unable to form hydrogen bonds because it does not contain nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine.

The turntabe is able to create sound through the record with the use of energy. When a record spins, it creates sound energy in the form of vibrations that get converted into electrical energy signals. These signals are fed into electronic amplifiers. Electric amps vibrate and feed the resulting sound into speakers, which amplify it and make it louder.

You may be asking yourself, how does this relate to chemistry. Well you see, those electrical signals are transferred through the internal wiring. The wiring is made of metal which has free-flowing electrons that actually allow the charge to flow through to the amplifiers. Let me explain, the metal used, let's use copper, is able to conduct electricity due to it's properties as a metal and it's bonding. Metallic bonding is very important for conducting electricity because of the free electrons involved. Unlike other bonding, metallic bonding does not bond the electrons to the atom. This “sea of electrons” is able to allow electrical currents to pass through it.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

The vinyl record first stood out to me while I was in my basement and stumbled upon a collection of them that belonged to my dad. I set out and bought a brand new record player and listened to the ones I had found.

Ever since I have been collecting vinyl to listen to at numerous stores, yardsales, and online.

I think it's important to keep vinyl records around because even tho times are changing very fast, it's always good to remember the past and keep nostalgic items in your life.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources

https://www.lenntech.com/polyvinyl-chloride-pvc.htm

https://victrola.com/blogs/articles/how-do-vinyl-records-work#:~:text=When%20a%20record%20spins%2C%20it,it%20and%20make%20it%20louder.

https://thevinylrevivers.com/a-brief-history-of-vinyl-records/

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Sunglasses

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 01 Jul 2022 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

The Chemistry of Sunglasses

Episode #5

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Austin Martorana and Tyler Hersh and we are your hosts for episode #5 called The Chemistry of Sunglasses. Today we will be discussing about radiation and the reaction that causes a tint in the glasses.

Segment 1: Introduction to Sunglasses

Have you ever put on sunglasses and been like, “How do these sunglasses block the sun.” Well, so did we.
Well that's actually very interesting because I’ve wanted to know this for a long time and doing research on it shared a lot of information like why do these little pieces of glass absorb UV rays and make everything a little bit darker?
Yea, i agree after this project I finally realized how the lenses block out light to help you see better.
Some background information is that UV rays are a form of radiation wavelengths that is commonly found through sunlight.
Not only do the sunglasses block out UV rays they have a specific reaction that takes place in the tints through excited electrons
Some background to electrons are when they hold more energy than when in their original state. This will cause them to be excited.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Sunglasses

Hey Tyler when you go to the beach do you wear sunglasses?
Yea, Austin I do they help protect my eyes from the sun.
Today we are going to dive into exactly how sunglasses work to protect our eyes from the sun.
Sunglasses have a mirror coating on the outside edges that work as a defense against the UV rays from the sun.
The coating is treated with UV-absorbing chemicals so it can block harmful UV and reflect the light away.
The tint from the sunglasses comes from the reaction between cations of the silver compound in them and the electrons of the glass.
The cluster of silver electrons become excited when hit by light which makes them move back and forth which then allows silver to absorb the light and scatter it.
The energy from the sun acts as both wave particles and electromagnetic energy which are called Photons.
We can describe the characteristics of photons by wavelengths and frequency.
Wavelengths play a big part in describing radiation and knowing which radiation is which.
Radiation comes in 6 forms which are gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, and radio waves.
Even though there are so many types of radiation, our eyes are sensitive to only a certain range of electromagnetic particles which is visible light.
This wave allows us to see colors when reflected or refracted.
But the sun also allows us to see certain radions that are above and below the range of 400-750 nm.
These rays are typically infrared, microwave, radio and the one that sunglasses are used for, ultraviolet.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

I really never knew how sunglasses actually worked and how they protected your eyes.
Yea austin isn’t it so cool how the UV rays get absorbed into the lens to reflect light away making your eyes have less stress on them from the sun.
Yea Tyler I hate when I’m sitting in my chair in my living room playing fortnite and the sun shines right through the window onto my face and I can’t see. Thats when I get up, sprint to my room to get sunglasses, and rock some shades while Im playing fortnite so the UV rays can be reflected instead of getting absorbed by my regular glasses. Wearing sunglasses makes me perform a lot better because it blocks the sun and allows me to see my TV screen.
Yea austin I hate playing with you whenever the sun is shining through your window because you normally suck and we lose all the time. I need to carry you whenever you complain about the damn sun saying it’s in your eyes.
Well yea thats why I put my sunglasses on because the chemicals in the sunglass lens absorb the UV rays from the sun and reflect them which makes me see.
Sunglasses also help me from getting eye damage from the sun on a nice warm summer day. This will help me in my future when I am an old man.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.chemservice.com/news/what-is-the-chemistry-behind-sunglasses/

https://www.medexpress.com/blog/better-health/how-sunglasses-protect-your-eyes.html#:~:text=Mirror%20coating%3A%20Mirror%20coating%20on,you%20guessed%20it%2C%20a%20mirror.

https://www.chemicool.com/definition/polarizability.html#:~:text=What%20is%20Polarizability%3F,a%20nearby%20cation%20or%20anion.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry Behind Crime

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 01 Jul 2022 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Episode #4

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Andrew Neal and Isabella Randazzo and I am your host for episode 4 called The Chemistry Behind Crime today we will be discussing forensics science and the chemistry behind it.

Segment 1: Introduction to Forensic Science

-Forensic Science is defined as scientific tests or techniques used in connection with the detection of crime, forensics can be used in all sorts of crimes including, but not limited to, homicide, theft, and kidnappings.

-the US government and justice system rely on forensics and forensic scientists to help solve crimes

-some examples of techniques used are

- fingerprinting

-blood tests

-DNA tests

-wound studies

-bullet entries in body and walls

-ect

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Blood Testing

So what exactly does AP chem have to do with the study of forensics and crime-solving?

Blood testing

There are many different challenges that a scientist or investigator might face at a crime scene that might make it difficult to identify blood and find where it came from

The blood could belong to an animal or a human
The blood could belong to the unsub and not the victim
All of this said, if blood is found at a crime scene it becomes a crucial part of the investigation, and it's often only found in small amounts so it is important that testing is done properly and effectively.

What is blood?

Water, plasma and proteins

-serums and anti serums/ chemical reactions between them

-Serum: The fluid component of blood that separates from the blood cells when a clot is formed

-Antiserum: A combination of antibodies and serum

-Kastle Myers Blood Test and chemical reactions

- A Kastle Myers blood test is used to determine whether a sample is blood or not. The test uses hydrogen peroxide and phenolphthalin, which is reduced phenolphthalein, and the sample. During the test, the sample, a small amount of distilled water, hydrogen peroxide, and phenolphthalin are mixed inside a test tube. If the sample is blood, then the solution will turn a bright pink color. However, if the sample is not blood, then the solution will remain clear.

-The Kastle Myers Blood test is related to chemistry because of the chemical reactions and redox reactions that confirm the sample is blood. If the sample is blood, then a component of blood called hemoglobin, which is the protein in the blood responsible for transporting blood, reacts with hydrogen peroxide. This leads to the formation of an iron-oxo species and hydroxyl radical. Both of these products can cause a redox reaction with the phenolphthalin where either the iron-oxo species and hydroxyl radical are reduced and the phenolphthalin is oxidized into phenolphthalein. Since phenolphthalein creates a bright pink color, it turns the entire solution into a bright pink.

Bonds in blood:

Blood contains amino acid proteins that bond with each other
Due to the larger sizes of the amino acids in blood, the londer dispersion forces created between them are pretty strong.
The bond between the O2 and the hemoglobin contributes to the process of carrying oxygen throughout the bloodstream.
The Fe+2 ions found in hemoglobins creates an ion induced dipole intermolecular for with oxygen molecules.
When the antibodies in blood find a specific antigen to bond with, they are able to create a strong attraction.
Although most intermolecular forces are weaker compared to intramolecular forces, the hydrogen bonding, electrostatic force, London dispersion forces, and hydrophobic links create a very strong attraction force.

- Due to the bond the multitude of intermolecular forces in blood as well as the thickness in blood, blood creates a unique splatter that can be analysed at a crime scene.

- The angle of the blood falling, the heigh of which the blood came from, and the velocity of the blood coming out of the body can all be found from the specific splatter of the blood drops which can be used to reconstruct the crime scene.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

In many shows in recent years, most of the plot in these shows corresponds to crime and solving the cuplrit of the crime. They use forensics science to help them solve these crimes during this process. However, most of the viewers don’t know enough about forensics science to understand how the information at the crime scene led to solving the crime. Therefore, it is important to let people know how forensics science is helpful at a crime scene.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

-https://www.chemeurope.com/en/encyclopedia/Kastle-Meyer_test.html

-https://bio.libretexts.org/Learning_Objects/Laboratory_Experiments/General_Biology_Labs/Book%3A_Unfolding_the_Mystery_of_Life_-_Biology_Lab_Manual_for_Non-Science_Majors_(Genovesi_Blinderman__Natale)/10%3A_Protein_Gel_Electrophoresis/10.1%3A_Blood_detection_using_the_Kastle-Meyer_test

-https://www.justice.gov/olp/forensic-science

-https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Grand_Rapids_Community_College/CHM_120_-_Survey_of_General_Chemistry/4%3A_Intermolecular_Forces_Phases_and_Solutions/4.02_Intermolecular_Forces

-https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3415751/

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Rainbows

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 01 Jul 2022 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chemistry Behind Rainbows

Episode #_3_

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our name’s are Julianna Silva and Chloe Mcgregor and we are your hosts for episode #3 called the chemistry behind rainbows. Today we will be discussing exactly how rainbows occur after a storm, how the wavelengths of each color work together, and how acids and bases cause acid rain to change the appearance of a rainbow.

Segment 1: Introduction to Rainbows

Have you ever wondered how exactly rainbows occur after storms? It is instinct to run outside after a storm to look at rainbows. But why exactly do these beautiful rainbows occur?

Just last week when I was driving during the storm I saw a rainbow right outside my window which gave me the perfect idea for our podcast episode.

Throughout this first segment, we will be going over the basic components of a rainbow, and exactly how the water and sunlight work together to expose the 7 individual colors of the rainbow.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Rainbows

To the human eye, the light that comes from the sun appears to be white. However, this white light is actually composed of the 7 wavelengths of color. A wavelength is the distance between successive crests of a wave, especially points in a sound wave or electromagnetic wave.

Each color is unique to its wavelength. The color red has the slowest and longest wavelengths while violet, on the opposite side of the rainbow, has the shortest and fastest wavelengths. When all of these wavelengths are together, they produce the normal, visible white light.

The electromagnetic spectrum consists of an array of wavelengths that produce a variation of radiations such as ultraviolet, infrared, radio, gamma rays, and x-rays.

On this same spectrum is visible light that consists of the 7 wavelengths of color combined. When these 7 wavelengths of color are combined, they produce a white visible light that we see from sunlight.

However, after a rainstorm when H2O molecules are present in the air, the white light is able to hit a new medium. Compared to the air, the white light uses the water molecules to refract, causing the 7 separate colors to become visible to the human eye. The interaction between the white light and the water droplets cause the wavelengths to separate, and therefore produce a rainbow across the sky after a storm.

One of the main reasons why wavelengths are separated when they hit water is because water is much denser than air. The density of water causes the separation of the electromagnetic spectrum. Also visible to the human eye is the curvature of a rainbow. After a storm hits, there is only a certain amount of water droplets suspended in the atmosphere. As the sunlight hits these specific droplets, a curved rainbow can be observed with respect to the curvature of the earth.

Not only does sunlight interact with rain water, but it also interacts with acid rain.

As we know, rainbows can come in many different sizes and are all unique to one another. The size in particular is determined by the makeup of the water droplets and scientists determine if there are chemicals in the atmosphere by simply observing it.

In particular, acid rain reacts differently with the sunlight as it passes through, resulting in a rainbow with a larger radius. Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are present in the atmosphere and get absorbed in the precipitating rainwater. The acid then has a different refraction and the interaction with water molecules together contributes to the change in rainwater and the angle with respect to sunlight that the rainbow is observed. The angle at which the rain interacts with the light can be used to estimate the pH value of the rainwater.

But what are acids? What is the composition of acids?
When other substances are added into water, its pH can change. Acidic solutions have more H+ and a lower pH, and alkaline solutions have more OH- and a higher pH.
pH: 7 means solution is neutral, under 7 is acidic, over 7 is basic
So from the words acid rain you might guess that it means rain that has a pH much lower than 7. You would be right that's exactly what it is.
But how does it form? First, sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide are produced by the combustion of fossil fuels. When these gasses rise up in the atmosphere they can react in a few different ways to produce acid. Two molecules of sulfer dioxide can react with diatomic oxygen gas and a composition reaction to produce two molecules of sulfur trioxide. Then each of those sulfur trioxide molecules reacts with liquid water from cloud droplots to produce H2SO4 (sulfuric acid). This is the acid that then affects the composition of the water droplots in rainbows.
Alternatively, two molecules of nitrogen monoxide can react with diatomic oxygen gas to produce two molecules of nitrogen dioxide. Then those two molecules react with water to produce nitric acid (HNO3) and nitrous acid (HNO2).
H2SO4, HNO3, and HNO2 are the products remaining. But how do these actually form to create acids within the rainbow? So what essentially happens is these molecules are dissolved in the water and obviously decrease the pH value. That's simple, we know that. However, if we break it down what actually happens is these molecules donate one of their H+ ions and by the Bronsted Lowery Theorem this makes them a acid. One example of this donation of one of the H+ ions to a water molecule would be H2SO4 would be HSO4- and that would result in a water molecule gaining a hydrogen ion/ proton making it H3O+.
The more of these molecules that dissociate, the more H3O+ is created which makes a stronger acid. Typically, the strongest of acids will dissociate completely and each of those acid molecules will dissociate to form a H3O+ molecule.
Sometimes, in HNO2 case, these acids are weak, meaning they do not dissociate completely. This means that most of those molecules remain intact when they are put in water so most of the HNO2 molecules remain HNO2 molecules. However, H2SO4 and HNO3 are strong and will dissociate completely which gives them the highest effect when forming rainbows.
Ultimately the more the acidic the rain is the more the H3O+ dissociates, forming a larger rainbow that appears bigger to the human eye.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

We were fasinated by the colors and how something so pretty could form from something so dark. Sometimes periods of time are dark and you need something bright and cheerful to lighten the mood. Rainbows represent just that and in terms of chemistry, learning about how the different colors come to light is interesting and useful.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://phys.org/news/2015-08-resplendent-inflexibility-rainbow.html

https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/wavelength

https://www.rmets.org/metmatters/rainbows-how-are-they-formed

https://www.iopb.res.in/~sjp/83final/4.pdf

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of the Chernobyl Disaster

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 01 Jul 2022 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Chernobyl Disaster

Episode #11

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Melissa and Elise and we are your hosts for episode 2 called The Chernobyl Disaster. Today we will be discussing the nuclear disaster in a city in Ukraine called Chernobyl.

Segment 1: Introduction to Chernobyl

The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear explosion that occurred on April 26th, 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant No. 4 reactor. The nuclear power plant was located near the city of Pripyat in the northern part of Ukraine, which was a part of the Soviet Union at the time. The explosion of Chernobyl’s number 4 reactor (RBMK-type reactor) released large amounts of radiation into the city. The area within a 30 kilometer radius of Chernobyl is now considered the Chernobyl exclusion zone. To this day, there are still areas in the exclusion zone where the radiation is far too dangerous for human contact. (talk ab how chernobyl is a tourist attraction and people can go see it)

Melissa: Isn’t there a tourist attraction where people can go to Chernobyl?

*Elise put in stuff ab attraction*

The Chernobyl disaster is the worst nuclear disaster in terms of cost and casualties. The initial emergency response alone involved more than 500,000 personnel, which included firefighters, engineers, military troops, police, miners, cleaners and medical personnel. The cost was around 18 billion Soviet rubles, which converts to 68 billion US dollars. 31 people died as an immediate result, but in 2005, it was predicted that as many as 4,000 people could eventually die from radiation exposure. (convo about how it’s almost impossible to calculate cost of lives)

Melissa: I think it’s really hard to calculate because I think there were lasting effects right?

*Elise talks ab some of the lasting effects*

Along with human deaths, countless animals were slaughtered in Chernobyl’s surrounding area in fear of their exposure to radiation.

Elise: Let’s look at some of the people who were involved in Chernobyl

Important people involved:

Valery Legasov: The main chemist behind the investigation of Chernobyl and his work in its containment as well. He commit suicide ten years after the disaster, partly because he knew he would die sooner because of the radiation exposure. He had a set of audio tapes that he recorded before his death where he described his involvement with Chernobyl in full detail.

Anatoly Dyatlov: A Soviet engineer and deputy chief engineer for the Chernobyl power plant. He supervised the safety test that resulted in the Chernobyl explosion. He was the main person blamed for the disaster, as he did not follow safety protocols. (he did spend time in jail because it was mainly his negligence that caused the explosion)

Mikhail Gorbachev: leader of the Soviet Union at the time of the explosion

Boris Shcherbina: A Ukrainian Soviet politician who supervised the Chernobyl disaster. He had a really large role in allowing the investigation to receive the information and research that it needed.

coal miners & firemen: They were people considered the first responders in the incident. There were obviously firemen who were woken up in the middle of the night and had to go and put out the fire. They were heavily exposed to radiation and when they went to the hospital, they had to throw their uniform and equipment in the basement. To this day, the basement of the hospital is one of the most contaminated places and cannot be accessed due to its extreme radiation. (talk ab the scene in the docu maybe) Miners were brought in to dig a tunnel under the reactor to prevent the melting core from contaminating the groundwater. (which would put many lives at risk) It’s approximated that one out of four of the miners died later as a result of radiation poisoning.

Melissa: now that we know the people who were involved, let’s take a closer look at what happened in Chernobyl

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind The Chernobyl Disaster

Now let’s look at what went wrong at Chernobyl. But first, let’s take a look at how a RBMK-type reactor, the kind at Chernobyl, works:

There are three components in an RBMK-type reactor which is the nuclear reactor used in Chernobyl. Uranium atoms, boron control rods, and cold water. The components can be broken down into 2 categories: things that increase reactivity and things that decrease reactivity. To start, uranium atoms split apart through a process called nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is when neutrons collide with uranium atoms and cause them to split. This releases a large amount of energy making it an exothermic reaction.

Elise: Exothermic reaction is something we covered in chem this year. CHEMISTRY CONNECTION

This whole process increases the reactivity of the core and if the reactivity isn’t balanced by an external source, it will continue to rise exponentially. This is extremely disastrous as xenon gas is a product of this reaction and is extremely poisonous if it is not burned off and it typically is when the reactor is working under normal conditions.

Elise jumps in: In Chernobyl’s case, the reactor wasn’t working under normal conditions which means there was a build up of poisonous xenon gas

That’s why it’s so important to have devices like the boron control rods to decrease the reactivity of the core. The Boron control rods act like brakes on a car. They absorb some neutrons that would otherwise collide with the uranium atoms, therefore slowing the rate of fission. The more neutrons absorbed, the slower the rate of fission so the more boron control rods present in the core, the lower the reactivity.

The final part is the cold water which basically takes out the heat from the system since heat is produced in the reaction. The cold water takes out the heat and turn into steam. The steam then turns the turbines which generate electricity.

So essentially the uranium atoms split apart which increases the reactivity. To lower the reactivity, boron control rods and cold water are used.

Elise: It’s like a cycle when you think about it. Each component needs to work together in order for the reactor to work as it should.

Right, so when there are many moving parts in the reactor the question that comes to mind is what actually happened in Chernobyl, what went wrong?

So what actually went wrong at Chernobyl?

The reactor exploded in the early morning, at around 1:23 AM. That night, the night crew was running a safety test, something that had been continuously put off for a few days.

Melissa: Automatic red flags right there since there were people who were running the test who were not trained to do so

There was a planned decrease of reactor power in preparation for the test, but the power output unexpectedly dropped to near-zero. Operators were not able to restore the power plant’s needed power level for the test, causing the reactor to be unstable. At this point, reactivity in the core had been rising, but all of this happened with Dyatlov thinking there was a foolproof fail-safe, AZ-5. Under normal conditions, engaging in AZ-5 immediately causes the boron control rods to enter the core and decrease reactivity. However, the control rods were tipped with graphite, (didn’t get to the boron part of the control rod) which caused the already rising reactivity in the core to soar. Ultimately, causing the core the melt down and explode and erupt into flames.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

This topic was interesting to us because it’s the worst nuclear disaster in history and so naturally, we’re curious about what actually happened. There’s an immense amount of chemistry behind the workings of a nuclear power plant and that coupled with the tragedy of the Chernobyl No. 4 reactor piqued our interest.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190725-will-we-ever-know-chernobyls-true-death-toll

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster

https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/appendices/rbmk-reactors.aspx

https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/RBMK#:~:text=The%20control%20rods%20are%20made,and%20the%20slower%20fission%20occurs.

https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/nuclear/#:~:text=In%20nuclear%20fission%2C%20atoms%20are,form%20of%20heat%20and%20radiation.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Solar Panels

Hopewell Valley Student Publication Network — Fri, 01 Jul 2022 09:00:00 -0400

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network

Chemistry Connections

Light Up Our World

Episode #1

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Sarah and I'm Akhansha and we are your hosts for episode #1 called “Light Up Our World”. Today we will be discussing the chemistry behind solar panels.

Segment 1: Introduction to Solar Panels

Solar panels are an alternative, renewable energy source that have gained popularity in recent years. In this episode, we will be explaining how solar panels receive light and produce electricity. But why are solar panels important? Electricity runs the modern world, being necessary for almost all of our daily activities. However, in this day and age, the source of electricity is just as important as electricity itself. *cough* Climate change *cough*. Solar panels provide an alternative pathway to gain energy without harming our world like other sources of electricity.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind TOPIC

So how do solar panels convert light into electricity? Solar panels are made of two types of semiconductors: P-type and N-type. Before we elaborate, we’d like to clarify what a semiconductor is. A semiconductor is a substance that has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an insulator. On the periodic table, elements that are semiconductors are silicon, germanium, tin, selenium, and tellurium.

The P-type layer is placed next to the N-type layer. In the P-type layer, atoms with one less electron in the outer shell compared to silicon, like boron and gallium, are added. This absence of an electron is referred to as a “hole” that is positively charged. In the N-type layer, atoms, like phosphorus, that have one more electron in the outer shell than silicon, are added. This creates an excess of electrons in the N-type layers since one electron is free to roam after phosphorus bonds with neighboring silicon atoms.

Electrons in n-type layer travel to vacancies in p-type layer
Depletion zone - area around junction between p-type and n-type layers where electrons fill holes
When holes are filled in the depletion zone…
Negatively charged ions in p-type part of depletion zone
Positively charged ions in n-type part of depletion zone
Internal electric field created that prevents more electrons from n-type layer from filling holes in p-type layer
Sunlight ejects electrons from silicon, creating more holes
Electrons are attracted to positive silicon nuclei (opposite charges attract)
Energy is needed to break the attractive force between electrons and silicon nuclei
Electrons closer to silicon nuclei will be harder for sunlight to eject (Coulomb’s law)
Sunlight must have enough energy to remove electrons from silicon atoms
Different types of solar radiation have different energies
Higher-energy solar radiation (higher frequency light waves) may be more capable of ejecting electrons
Solar radiation
Also called electromagnetic radiation
Light emitted by the sun
the amount of solar radiation that reaches any one spot on the Earth’s surface varies based off of location, time of day, season, local landscape and local weather
Solar radiation is captured and is turned into useful forms of energy
Harder to remove electrons from elements neart the top right of the periodic table (increased Zeff, fewer E-levels)
Ejection in electric field → field moves electrons to n-type layer and holes to p-type layer
If n-type and p-type layers are connected with a wire, electrons travel from n-type layer to p-type layer by crossing depletion zone and then through wire out of n-type layer → electricity
Two main types of solar energy technology: Photovoltaics (PV) and Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power (CSP)
Photovoltaics
When the sun shines onto a solar panel, energy from the sunlight is absorbed by the PV cells in the panel
This energy creates electrical charges that move in response to an internal electrical field in the cell, causing electricity to flow
Concentrating Solar-Thermal power
CSP systems use mirrors to reflect and concentrate sunlight onto receivers
Receivers collect solar energy and convert solar energy to heat energy
Heat energy can then be converted into usable electricity or can be stored for later use

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Solar energy is becoming an increasingly popular form of energy
Some government programs allow people to save money by switching to solar energy
Door-to-door solar panels sales reps begging people to switch to solar
Power outages wouldn't be an issue with solar panels
Sarah made a solar-powered phone charger in eighth grade
Climate change sucks

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry of Leaf Slugs

HVSPN — Wed, 23 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #26

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Anushka Agarwal and I’m Nick Bailey, and we are your hosts for episode #26 called the chemistry of photosynthesis in leaf slugs. Today we will be discussing how leaf slugs use photosynthesis

Segment 1: Introduction to Chloroplasts and the Leaf Slug

Leaf slugs are a sea creature that is able to use photosynthesis. This is uncommon because animal cells generally do not contain chloroplasts.

Chloroplasts are the organelle commonly found in plant cells where the photosynthesis reactions occur. Both the light-dependent and light-independent reactions take place here.

Photosynthesis is the process where chloroplasts turn carbon dioxide into glucose. Water is also needed for the reactions to occur and oxygen is produced in addition to the glucose.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Photosynthesis

There are two main parts to photosynthesis, the light-dependent and light-independent reactions.

Light Dependent: Chloroplasts require light energy in order to reduce NADP+ and ADP to create NADPH and ATP. We can see that this specific reaction is endothermic because the energy from the light was required to break the bonds in the reactants.

Light Independent: The light-independent reactions make the process of photosynthesis occur properly. The main reaction that takes place is referred to as the Calvin Cycle. This is the process where the plants use the CO2 to create glucose. The process starts with 3 Carbon-5 molecules(RUBP) and 3 Carbon- molecules(CO2). These combine to create 3 Carbon-6 molecules (mention stability) and will, almost instantaneously, turn into 6 Carbon-3 molecules. Then, in a process called reduction, 6 ATP and 6 NADPH, both of which donate electrons, will be oxidized and the carbons will be reduced, or will gain electrons. We will then have 6 Carbon-3 molecules(3G3P). One G3P molecule is “set aside” to later become glucose. The remaining 5 G3Ps go towards the process of regeneration where they will further reduce by 3 additional ATP molecules(go from 5 Carbon-3 molecules to 3 Carbon-5 molecules [same RUBP we started with]). In order to successfully create a single glucose molecule this process must occur twice because glucose is C6H12O6(only produce one Carbon-3 molecule in the first full rotation of the Calvin cycle)

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Nick: I found this topic particularly fascinating because it is one of the rare exceptions where animals use photosynthesis. As we had stated earlier, photosynthesis is commonly used in plants. The leaf slug can photosynthesize because it eats so much algae and is able to extract the chloroplasts from those plant cells, making it able to photosynthesize.

Anushka: I personally wanted to do this project on the leaf slug because I find them extremely interesting and cute. As I’d said earlier, please look up a picture of the leaf slug if you can, I promise you will not regret it. Not only are they amazing to look at, the leaf slug is also such an anomaly in nature. Their ability to photosynthesize because they eat too many greens never fails to peak my interest and wonder what else the world has hidden under the sea.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costasiella_kuroshimae

https://www.boredpanda.com/leaf-sheep-sea-slug-costasiella-kuroshimae

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis

https://www.britannica.com/science/photosynthesis

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sQK3Yr4Sc_k

https://www.britannica.com/science/chloroplast

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of Lightning

HVSPN — Wed, 23 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #25

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Christopher Sawicki, and I am your host for episode #25. Today I will be discussing the chemistry of lightning.

Segment 1: Introduction to lightning

Lighting, how lightning is produced and why
Lighting gives of a smell and color
Ionization: transfer of electrons to form an ion or from an ion
Intramolecular forces: attractions between atoms in a molecule
Intermolecular forces: attractions between entire molecules

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind lightning

Lightning

Water and ice move around in the cloud, ice has a negative charge
Updrafts and downdrafts in storms cause water molecules to collide which causes electrons to be separated from the molecules and move towards the bottom of the cloud
Warm updrafts sweep positively charged molecules to the top of the cloud
Updraft: current of air moving up
Positive ions move towards the top of the cloud and creates an electric field
Electrons are attracted to positive charged ions on the ground
Can contain billions to trillions of electrons
1 billion volts of electricity
Up to 5 billion Joules of energy
Electrons are attracted to positive charged ions because they want to neutralize themselves.
Protons move up and meet the electrons as they move down
As electrons move down through during lightning, they crash into more molecules in the air, creating more ions
This is why metals attract lightning because it has a sea of electrons and many positive charged ions.

Smell

The smell of thunderstorms is the result of ozone in the air
As lightning travels down, it splits O2 molecules creating 2 oxygen atoms
These oxygen atoms then bond with other O2 molecules creating ozone, O3

Color

Creates a blue-violet color highlighting the lightning bolt
Electrons form lightning ionize O2 and N2 molecules
These molecules become excited and take on a different color when in this state

Heat

The electrons in lightning carry heat.
Lightning can be up to 54,000 degrees Fahrenheit. Which is 6 times hotter than the sun
Intramolecular forces
Air is a poor conductor electricity
Conductor means it it is easy for electrons to pass through
Not ionic or metallic, covalent bonds make electrons not as attracted and easily given or pulled off
Because air is a poor conductor of electricity, there is a greater resistance to the electrons moving through the air, which creates heat, heating up the molecules are the lightning

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Lightning fascinates me because clouds form seemingly out of nothing, evaporated water and produce lighting bolts with billions of electrons
Enough electricity and energy to kill people
2000 people die a year due to lightning
Always thought lightning was cool and wanted to know what cause lightning to occur

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.compoundchem.com/2018/07/31/thunderstorms/

https://www.chemistryislife.com/the-chemistry-of-lightning

https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/storms/thunder-and-lightning

https://www.exploratorium.edu/ronh/weather/weather.html#:~:text=Therefore%2C%20any%20electrons%20liberated%20near,and%20creating%20more%20charged%20fragments.

https://www.tau.ac.il/~colin/research/Chemistry/chemistry.html

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of a Crocodiles Stomach

HVSPN — Wed, 23 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #24

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Josh Beigman and along with Henry Stanton we are your hosts for episode #24 called The Chemistry of a Crocodile's Stomach. Today we will be discussing the Chemistry of the most powerful digestive system in the animal kingdom.

Segment 1: Introduction to The Chemistry of a Crocodile's Stomach

Crocodiles are able to digest almost anything they eat, so they swallow their food whole and then digest it.
Crocodile stomachs are strong enough to dissolve anything they eat, which is the whole animal. This includes meat, cartilage, and even bone. They are able to eat rotten carcasses without feeling any effect from dangerous bacteria.
Their stomachs have even been found to be able to dissolve steel nails.
We found this interesting and wanted to learn more about it, so we made a podcast episode about it.
Crocodiles are large reptiles that prey on a variety of animals, which means that they have to be able to digest almost all kinds of animals.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind a Crocodile's Stomach

The HCl in the stomach helps break down what the crocodile has eaten faster because the Cl- ions denature the proteins because the Hydrogen bonds that were between the proteins are now replaced by ion dipole bonds between the Cl- ions and the proteins, which is a stronger type of bond. These denatured proteins are now able to be digested by enzymes like pepsin.
All animal stomachs use HCl to break down the food they ingest. The HCl is produced by water and carbon dioxide reacting to make H2CO3, which dissociates into H+ and HCO3-. The HCO3- are exchanged for Cl- ions through an anion exchanger. The H+ ions and Cl- ions are then pumped into the stomach and break down the food.
The reaction to create carbonic acid, or H2CO3, is catalyzed by the presence of an enzyme called Carbonic anhydrase.
The difference between a crocodile's stomach and a human's stomach is the amount of acid they are able to produce.
Crocodiles are able to produce large amounts of HCl because their hearts have (aorta) a way to redirect CO2 from the lungs and send it to the stomach instead, which allows for more H+ ions to be produced, since CO2 is necessary for its production, so having more of it allows for more H+ to be produced. The pH of a crocodile's stomach is between 1 and 3.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

We always knew that stomach acid is extremely powerful, and that some animals are able to eat just about anything and come out none the worse for it. Human stomachs can't safely digest rotten food, and yet some animals like vultures and other scavengers eat nothing but food infested with lethal bacteria. After taking AP chemistry this year, we realized we had enough knowledge to understand the process of these super strong animal stomachs, so we used this project as an opportunity to investigate this

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/02/11/2159238.htm

https://www.britannica.com/animal/crocodile-order

https://teachmephysiology.com/gastrointestinal-system/stomach/acid-production/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastric_acid

https://www.ifst.org/lovefoodlovescience/resources/protein-acid-denaturation

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of Candles

HVSPN — Wed, 23 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #23

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Devon Ennis and I am your host for episode 23 called the chemistry of candles. Today I will be discussing what happens to candle wax when the candle is lit and how candle wax is made.

Segment 1: Introduction to candles

I introduce the topic by describing where the earliest candles were found, and how they were used throughout time. The purpose of candles has changed from being used as a light source to being used for the scent. I also explain some of the materials used to make candles, and ask rhetorical questions about where the wax goes when burning a candle.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind candles

Paraffin wax is made from crude oil and is the most common wax used in candles. The wick absorbs the liquid and pulls it upwards towards the flame. The heat from the flame vaporizes the wax. I also explain how the stream of white smoke after you blow out a candle is paraffin vapor that condensed into a visible form.

The feedstock for paraffin wax is slack wax, and the first step to making paraffin wax is to remove the oil from slack wax. The slack wax is heated, mixed with one or more solvents and then cooled. As it cools, the wax crystallizes while the oil is left in the solution. The hydrocarbon C31H64 is a typical component of paraffin wax. I explain how hydrocarbon molecules of different lengths have different behaviors and properties.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

I used candles all the time, and I’ve always been interested in how candles are made. As well as what happens to the wax as it burns. I had no idea how long the hydrocarbon chains were in candle wax until I was researching it. I was also surprised to know that it was made from crude oil.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources

https://home.howstuffworks.com/question267.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candle

https://www.webstaurantstore.com/guide/739/types-of-candles.html

https://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/alternative-fuels/question105.htm

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry Behind Advil

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #22

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Sofie Ragins and I’m here with Xavier Jimenez and we are your host for episode #22 called The Chemistry behind Advil Today we will be discussing the chemical process that occurs when consuming advil to relieve pain

Segment 1: Introduction to Advil

Advil temporarily relieves headaches, backaches, common colds, muscle aches, and other pain. Basically, Advil is a safe non-prescription pain reliever. This means that you or I can walk into a drug store and purchase Advil without a doctor's prescription

In 2018 nearly 24 million people purchased advil.

The one and only active ingredient that is what actually causes the pain relief, Ibuprofen.

Ibuprofen is part of a drug class called non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and the name Ibuprofen is derived from isobutyl (ibu) propionic acid (pro) phenyl (fen)

Advil is dissolved in the stomach and then is absorbed by the intestinal wall in order to reach the bloodstream Eventually it reaches the areas where the synthesis of the prostaglandin is found. Prostaglandin are the fatty acids which cause the pain found near the damaged tissue.

Okay so we have covered the background but there are a lot of things that the biology does not cover so do you want to get into the Chemistry portion of this podcast

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Advil

Of course, while I had just said ibuprofen is ‘dissolved’ in stomach acid, Ibuprofen is actually not soluble in stomach acid which we are gonna discuss as gastric acid.

I’ll start with a little background on Ibuprofen: it is a non-polar weak acid with a pH around 4.4. Ibuprofen is most soluble with organic solvents like ethanol, methanol, aceton, and dichloromethane

Well, the non polar ibuprofen is what actually causes it to not dissolve with gastric acid. This is because Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and visa versus with nonpolar solutes and solvents. Knowing this principle, and that Gastric Acid is very polar it clearly indicates the nonpolar Ibuprofen will not form a solution with the polar gastric acid, this means no ibuprofen will technically be ‘dissolved’

Not only is ibuprofen insoluble but its molecule also has a large carbon chain. This carbon chain will create a great bond strength which is fairly difficult to break.

The significantly high bond strength is difficult to overcome and in order for the molecule to dissolve, the solvent-solvent bonds must be broken, and solvent-solute bonds need to form. Gastric acid is extremely acidic with a pH of 1-2 and any strong acid will pull apart the intramolecular forces bonding the molecule, which is why acid is so destructive. When the acid interacts with the ibuprofen it will break the bonds just like the acid would to regular food when digested. Because the reaction relies purely on the strength of gastric acid and the ibuprofen is insoluble,

This process will have a relatively long residence time, which means the reaction occurs at a slower rate. Now why don’t you explain the reaction rate.

This slower rate is actually caused by the high activation energy of ibuprofen. Activation energy is pretty self explanatory, it's the energy it takes to activate or start a reaction. Since we are talking about the reaction rate of Ibuprofen we should talk about the activation energy of it. When it comes to thermodynamically favorable reactions with a high activation energy they theoretically should occur because when the reaction is thermodynamically favorable, it's favored to react.. Going back to ibuprofen, The required temperature for it to begin reacting is around 800 degrees fahrenheit.

Ibuprofen is a nonselective inhibitor of an enzyme called cyclooxygenase (syclo-oxygen-naise)

This enzyme is required for the synthesis of ibuprofen in the acid pathway

The enzyme plays a major role in getting this reaction to occur.

Because the activation energy of ibuprofen is fairly large the reaction is unlikely to happen at the temperature of our stomach which is around 100 degrees fahrenheit.

The enzyme's job is to create another way for the chemical reaction to occur more rapidly, this alternate path length allows for the reaction to occur at with a lower activation energy as well.

Without the enzyme it would be likely the ibuprofen wouldn’t react rendering it useless.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Being an athlete I tend to always be injured and throughout the season to keep me on the court I’m always taking Advil. I have a travel size bottle in all my bags and I would have to sit if it weren’t for having advil. I have taken Advil plenty of times myself but never really understood how it works. Something so commonly used by many people holds a lot of importance. You swallow it with some water and your pain can be relieved for hours. Something so basic actually requires a quite complex process and we both were curious to understand how chemistry played a role in Advil from start to finish.

When I think of Advil, I usually remember all the times I used to take it for headaches. I Have struggled with sleep my whole life, and therefore would always have headaches because headaches can be caused by dehydration, blood flow, and lack of sleep. When we have issues in these certain areas, they become inflamed. Advil has always been there for me with my struggles when I would have migraines every since 2nd grade, and always helped me. Advil’s anti-inflammatory properties help relieve the pain, however there is just so much chemistry involved with it, which makes Advil seem magical.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources

https://www.ausetute.com.au/ibuprofen.html

https://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i50/Making-Ibuprofen-Three-Minutes.html

https://www.advil.com/our-products/advil-tablets/

https://www.scirp.org/html/2-1010111_44499.htm

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Cookware Chemistry and Glowing Glass

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #21

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Alex Scott and I am your host for episode #21, Cookware Chemistry and Glowing Glass. Today I will be discussing the history and chemistry behind uranium glass.

Segment 1: Introduction to Uranium Glass

Introduce the episode topic

Include definitions, vocabulary, interesting background information and context

So today we’re talking about uranium glass, but we have to start much more in the abstract
There’s a few different terms used to describe the glass I’m talking about:
Depression glass: produced from 1929–1939, often clear or colored translucent machine-made glassware distributed free, or at low cost, in the United States and Canada around the tim e of the Great Depression.
Elegant glass: Depression glass that was at least partially handmade, had a cleaner finish, and more vibrant colors, same time period
Uranium glass: glass which has had a uranium metal oxide added to a glass mix before melting for coloration
Vaseline Glass: uranium glass of a yellow or green translucent color
Generally, uranium glass can be identified by shining blacklight on it, as it will fluoresce a bright green
Context & History
The oldest recorded use is at least 79 AD, in a yellow piece of glass in a Roman mosaic, but it became most popular in the mid 19th century
Generally, the most recognized industrial uranium glass producer is Austrian Franz Xaver Riedel
He named the 2 colors annagelb and annagrun, for his wife Anna & the German words for yellow and green.
Produced variety of items, worked in modern day Dolni Polubni, Bohemia
By the 1840s, many other European glassworks began to produce uranium glass items and developed new varieties of uranium glass
In the US, Most glassware was made in the Ohio River Valley, where access to raw materials and power made manufacturing inexpensive
It was commonly used as a coloring agent for green American Depression glass during the early 20th century
Use in the US stopped partway through WWII when the US confiscated uranium supplies

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Uranium Glass

Have a natural transition into an example… no need to say “segment 2”

Provide detailed explanations of the chemistry that is related to your topic.

Remember that you must have a minimum of 2 topics from ap chem that you can explain here as related to your episode

Why was uranium oxide used to make the glass green?
Metal oxides make glass different colors
Why?: reflect a specific wavelength and absorb all the others
Why does it fluoresce under UV light?
Takes the energy from ultraviolet light
Excites molecules, so in order to bring electrons back to lower energy state, it releases a photon of light

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Interested because:
my parents are avid antique glass collectors
My parents especially love green Depression Glass
I wanted to know what made it that color
Tested my own cabinet to see what was and wasn't uranium AND MOST OF IT WAS
It’s strange that radioactive materials were so popular for cookware
Stranger that I’ve eaten off of it on holidays and family gatherings
The history is so strange

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_glass

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_glass

https://dustyoldthing.com/uranium-glass-spotlight/

http://www.glassassociation.org.uk/sites/default/files/WEBSITE%20Uranium%20Glass%20website%20%282%29.pdf

https://www.collectorsweekly.com/articles/these-people-love-to-collect-radioactive-glass/

https://www.orau.org/ptp/collection/consumer%20products/vaseline.htm

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of Drug Induced Parkinsons

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #20

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Mari Kwak and I am your host for episode #20 called Drug induced Parkinson’s. Today I will be discussing how poorly made “synthetic Heroin” can induce symptoms of Parkinson’s disease in users within one use.

Segment 1: Introduction to Synthetic Heroin and Parkinson’s Disease

Parkinson’s disease is a genetically inherited disorder of the central nervous system, which affects body movement. Over the past 8 or so years, outbreaks of induced parkinson's have been found in California, Maryland, Vancouver, and British Columbia.
This synthetic heroin powder containing MPTP is usually either dissolved in water and injected into the bloodstream or snorted.
Unlike other effects of drugs which take consistent usage over a period of time, this new synthetic drug has caused irreversible symptoms of Parkinson’s within the first use.
Some symptoms of induced Parkinson’s observed in patients are difficulty moving, rigidity, resting tremor, flexed posture, and loss of postural reflexes.
The heroin powder itself, otherwise known as MPPP, does not cause Parkinson's, it's the MPTP that is a byproduct of synthetic heroin that causes Parkinson's-like symptoms.
This background info comes from a CDC article with data from The National Institute on Drug Abuse and the National Institute of Mental Health.

Chemistry time:

The chemical compound N-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine, MPTP, is the accidental byproduct of MPPP, a synthetic opium drug.
MPTP itself is not toxic, but when it oxidizes into MPP+ after it breaks the skin barrier, it becomes toxic.
The MAO-B enzyme contained in astrocytes and serotonergic neurons reacts with MPTP in a redox reaction. MAO-B acts as a catalyst, to help facilitate the oxidation reaction of MPTP. First, MPTP is oxidized, by losing an electron, to become the chemical MPDP+. From there, more MAO-B oxidizes MPDP+ into MPP+, by losing another election. The final product, MPP+, is the toxic chemical found to induce Parkinson's.
Why is MPP+ so toxic, you may be wondering? Well… I personally do not know but science considers
MPP+ is considered toxic because it kills dopamine-producing neurons, which have a high affinity for MPP+. → meaning that MPP+ and dopamine-producing neurons are attracted to each other.
Since they have a high affinity, the dopamine transmitter (DAT) takes MPP+ up to DA neutrons, where MPP+ uses its neurotoxicity to interrupt the complex I respiratory chain. The complex I respiratory chain is responsible for catalysing the electron transfer between coenzymes, which are essential for cells to function normally.
Catalysts, like the complex I respiratory chain, increase the rate of reactions, by lowering the activation energy of the reaction. Since the complex I respiratory chain is interrupted, the electron transfers between two essential coenzymes will happen at too slow a rate for these cells to continue functioning.
When these dopamine-producing neurons cannot function properly, they cause disorders like Parkinson’s
In one autopsy of a drug user, MPTP appears to have destroyed the substantia nigra’s nerve cells located in the center bottom of the brain.
The pathway from the substantia nigra to signal the rest of the brain is made up of dopamine using neurons, which are severely damaged by MPP+.
The substantia nigra controls body movement and control so, the destruction of substantia nigra’s nerve cells from MPP+ causes the patient to lose body control and struggle with body movement.
Defects in this area of the brain are seen in both Parkinson’s patients and drug users who ingested MPTP.
The chemical reaction that destroys nerve cells after MPTP is ingested with synthetic heroin, is responsible for inducing Parkinson's-like symptoms in drug users.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

My old coach was trafficking drugs, including heroin, across the country with her son, and I was always wondering how underground chemists, AKA illegal drug makers, make large batches of drugs without lots of failures. It turns out that they do.

I found it interesting to learn about different byproducts that are accidentally created in the formation of different drugs
It's also interesting that medication/drugs can inadvertently mimic a genetic disorder that has no cure or solution.
Although MPTP is not good, it could help chemists and pharma personal understand Parkinson’s disease better
Potentially lead to a cure or further preventative measures to stop symptoms before they develop.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27974/#:~:text=Hydroxyl%20and%20other%20free%20radical,content%2C%20as%20observed%20in%20rodents.

https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00000360.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPTP

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27974/

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry Behind Pain Medicine

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #19

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Jayson Shin and I am your host for episode #19 called Advil, Aleve, Tylenol- There’s Chemistry Behind Them All. Today we will be discussing how pain medicines function and what they do to inhibit pain on the molecular level.

Segment 1: Introduction to The Chemistry of Pain Medicine

When you bruise your elbow, pull a muscle, or just downright feel sick, what’s your number one instinct? Well maybe you’d say ice or taking your temperature, but I’m talking about pain medicine. Pain medicine comes in various forms and products such as Advil, Aleve, and Tylenol just to name a few, but they all have the same function- relieve pain and bring body temperature closer to normal.

So let’s start off with what pain essentially is. It’s the body’s natural response to trauma or imbalance, which we feel as physical pain or discomfort. What happens when a part of the body is injured is a chemical known as prostaglandins are released. These prostaglandins essentially bind with various receptors to stimulate different bodily functions, such as proliferating blood clotting at the site of a contusion. However, these molecules are released as a result of chemical reactions in the body that utilize enzymes known as cyclooxygenase. As we know, enzymes serve to function similar to catalysts in that they can either lower activation energies for reactions or provide quicker, alternative pathways for reactions to produce prostaglandins. Now where pain medicines come in is they bind with the cyclooxygenase enzyme in order to inhibit it from accelerating reactions to produce prostaglandins. As a result, our body’s response to pain is decreased.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Pain Medicine

Now let’s really think about it. When you first think of pain medicine, you most likely think, “Oh I’ll take a pill and it’ll lower my fever” or “Oh my arm’s gonna feel better after I take a few pills of aspirin.” However, we never know why it works or think about how the pain medicine makes these changes to our bodies. So we’ll look at aspirin for example. You take an aspirin and it kicks in in about 15 minutes, and your symptoms of illness or pain from an injury decrease a bit. How does this happen? Aspirin binds with the enzyme cyclooxygenase in the body. As a result, the enzyme is occupied by a different species, and therefore cannot react with other reactants to produce prostaglandins. Let’s look at what the aspirin actually does to inhibit the production of prostaglandins.

As we all know, enzymes are a form of catalyst that help to proliferate the rate of reaction. In inhibiting the function of enzymes, by occupying them, less substrates are able to reach essential activation energy in order to undergo a reaction and create the prostaglandins products. What occurs in a reaction to produce prostaglandins is the cyclooxygenase enzyme binds with arachidonic acid substrates. As a result, the strength of the arachidonic acid bonds are altered in a way that they become weaker. Therefore, the activation energy required to carry out the reaction is lowered, and more substrates reach sufficient activation energy that way. When these cyclooxygenase enzymes are occupied instead by aspirin molecules, they are unable to accelerate the reaction to produce prostaglandins, and therefore, our body has less of a pain response.

Aspirin’s chemical formula is C9H8O4. At the end of an aspirin molecule, there is an acetyl group with a chemical formula of CH3CO. This portion of the molecule is what bonds to the cyclooxygenase enzyme in order to inhibit it from reacting to produce prostaglandin molecules. Now cyclooxygenase is a large, very complex lipid molecule that consists of a tremendously large carbon chain. What is important to isolate however is the serine group on the molecule, with a chemical formula C3H7NO3. Between the acetyl group on the aspirin molecule and the serine group on the cyclooxygenase molecule, a hydrogen bond is able to be formed. Structurally, there is an OH at the end of the serine molecule and a CO at the end of the acetyl group. The bond occurs between the H on the OH portion of the serine molecule and the O on the CO portion of the acetyl group. Evidently, hydrogen bonds are extremely strong, generally speaking, they are the strongest type of intermolecular force. As a result, the cyclooxygenase is occupied by a different molecule leaving it unable to separate easily and help catalyze the reaction to produce prostaglandins.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

So why am I interested in this topic? As an athlete, I’ve faced various injuries through my career, far more than a typical high school baseball player. I’ve had a plethora of pain and have had to take medicine left and right, whether it was Advil, Tylenol, or prescribed drugs following surgery. Freshman year, I had a torn labrum in my shoulder, causing me to miss the entire season and undergo surgery. I had to take pain medicine every day for a month at least to dampen the pain. During my sophomore year of baseball I had rotator cuff impingement in my shoulder making throwing painful. I had to take Advil frequently. In my junior year and senior year, I tore the labrums in both shoulders and I recall taking about 2 advil daily before a game in order to be able to play. From taking so much pain relief medicine, I always wondered how it worked. I had theorized that the medicine possibly produces a reaction to reduce pain, when in fact, it instead lessens the body’s pain response by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins.

Evidently, it is important to understand the true function of pain medicines because we must be aware of what we put inside of our bodies. Any time we put a foreign substance within our bodies, it is always a risk. Therefore, becoming educated on what pain medicines do exactly is imperative to know its safety and proper usage.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://patient.info/treatment-medication/painkillers

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Biological_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Biological_Chemistry)/Lipids/Fatty_Acids/Prostaglandins#:~:text=Functions%20of%20Prostaglandins,-There%20are%20a&text=Activation%20of%20the%20inflammatory%20response%2C%20production%20of%20pain%2C%20and%20fever.&text=A%20type%20of%20prostaglandin%20called,clots%20should%20not%20be%20forming.

https://www.yourhormones.info/hormones/prostaglandins/#:~:text=The%20prostaglandins%20are%20a%20group,and%20the%20induction%20of%20labour.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of Lake Karachay

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #18

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is JACQUELINE SUN and I am your host for episode #18 called The Chemistry of Lake Karachay. Today I will be discussing what is arguably the most polluted and undoubtedly the most radioactively contaminated lake in the world, Lake Karachay, as well as the chemistry behind what made it that way in the first place.

Segment 1: Introduction to Lake Karachay

The history behind why Lake Karachay earned its name as the most polluted place on earth is convoluted and widely unknown.

Karachay is a small lake less than 1 square mile in area located in Central Russia in the Ural Mountains.
In 1951, near the beginning of the Cold War, the Soviet Union dumped radioactive waste from the nearby, secret nuclear facility Mayak into Lake Karachay.
The Mayak reactor was built between 1946 and 1948 in total secrecy from the outerworld. Its purpose was to create radioactive material, primarily plutonium, that would allow the Soviets to build up a nuclear arsenal matching that of the US.
The results of this reactor and many other’s efforts could be seen in the Soviet’s successful detonation of their first atomic bomb in 1949.
However, afterward, there was much toxic nuclear waste remaining. Without regulation or regard for safety, the Soviet government directed for the radioactive waste either to be stored in underground tanks or to be disposed of in nearby water reservoirs.
Lake Karachay was the closest lake to Mayak, making it the primary dumping point.
From this point on, Lake Karachay’s radioactive levels rose sharply.
Lake Karachay accumulated 4.4 exabecquerels of radiation after the dumping. That is about 4 quintillion (which is 10^18) becquerels, or 10 billion curies of radiation. For reference, the Chernobyl disaster released over 5 exabecquerels of radiation. However, Karachay was theoretically more dangerous because of the type of radiation it released, Caesium-137, which had a greater radioactive impact on its surroundings.
In 1990, it was reported that standing by the shore of Lake Karachay for just less than an hour would provide enough radiation to kill you.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Lake Karachay

WHAT IS RADIATION?

Radiation is clearly a highly deadly and complex process. It all centers around nuclear chemistry, or chemical modifications made directly to the nucleus of an atom.
Nuclear reactions are different from chemical reactions in that chemical reactions really only involve changes and transfers in electrons, causing chemical compounds to be formed or rearranged. Nuclear reactions center around changes in the protons and neutrons located in the nucleus, which have the potential to release significant amounts of energy.
When the number of protons is changed, the element is changed from one to another. When the number of neutrons is changed, the element remains the same, but an isotope is created. These changes are called transmutations.
Transmutation is often spontaneous, or thermodynamically favorable, because nuclei naturally seek stability, or lower levels of potential energy. This is a similar concept to the octet rule in chemical reactions, or how atoms seek a full valence shell of electrons to reach their most stable state. Nuclear reactions will occur so that atoms may achieve a certain combination of protons and neutrons that stabilize the nucleus.
Therefore, an unstable nuclei may release protons and neutrons, leading to its decomposition and the formation of a different nucleus. This process is known as radioactive decay, or radioactivity. The often large quantities of energy released during this time is called ionizing radiation, and it is in the form of alpha and beta particles and gamma rays, with the degree of penetration and strength increasing from alpha to gamma.
It is important to note that radioactive decay reactions are first order reactions. This means that the reaction rate is directly dependent on the concentration of the reactant, or the radioactive substance. This also means that the rate of decrease in the concentration of the substance also decreases over time, because the reaction rate decreases as the concentration decreases. Due to this phenomenon, radioactive decay reactions have constant half-lives, which is the amount of time it takes for one-half of the number of nuclei in a sample of a radioactive substance to decay. However, different nuclear substances have different half-lives. For example, 100g of plutonium-239, with a half life of 24,100 years, will take that amount of time to deteriorate to 50g of plutonium-239. It will then take another 24,100 years to deteriorate to 25g of plutonium-239. In the case of Lake Karachay, Caesium-137 was the main radioactive substance accumulated, which has a half-life of 30.17 years. After 30.17 years, half of the Caesium-137 decays into metastable barium-137, which has a half life of around 2.6 minutes. After 2.6 minutes, metastable barium-137 decays to ground state barium-137, where it is stable and no longer decays.
During this decay period, large amounts of ionizing radiation in the form of beta particles and gamma rays were emitted.
Certain combinations of half-lives and amounts of ionizing radiation are what makes nuclear substances so dangerous.
This is because a shorter half-life means a higher rate of decomposition, which means more energy is being released in a shorter period of time. When combined with a high level of ionizing radiation, dangerous, potentially lethal amounts of energy could be produced, bombarding the surroundings. This was the case with Karachay, whose high energy beta particles and gamma rays easily penetrated their surroundings and disrupted the internal functions of nearby organisms.

HOW DOES RADIATION IMPACTS HUMANS?

The radioactive substances, primarily Caesium-137, in the lakebed of Lake Karachay irradiated over half a million people in the nearby vicinity. Many came into contact with it through everyday use, such as drinking or watering crops. There was also a catastrophe when a windstorm blew radioactive sediment dust over a wide radius, affecting many residents.
Radiation can cause much surface-level damage such as burns, sores, and nausea. More ominously, however, radiation can permanently alter the chemical composition of DNA, leading to mutations, cancer, and death.
DNA consists of two helical strands.
An individual strand is supported by a sugar-phosphate backbone. Within this backbone are phosphodiester bonds, which are intramolecular covalent bonds that bind together the sugars and phosphate groups. Covalent bonds are formed by a relatively even sharing of electrons between two nonmetals: in the case of DNA, a carbon from the sugar is linked to an oxygen in the phosphate group.
The two strands of DNA are held together by intermolecular hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous base pairs in DNA. Pairs can only form between a pyrimidine and purine base. Hydrogen bonds are formed between a hydrogen atom and a fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen atom. However, the hydrogen atom must be bonded covalently to either a fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen atom as well. In the case of base pairings, there will be two hydrogen bonds formed between an oxygen and a hydrogen atom and one hydrogen bond formed between a nitrogen and hydrogen atom.
The Caesium-137 radiation emitted by Karachay damaged the local residents’ DNA by disrupting these bonds. The ionizing radiation first randomly knocked valence electrons out of their atomic shells. The valence electrons could be more easily removed, or ionized, because they were a further distance from the positive charged nucleus and experienced more shielding, decreasing coulombic attractions. As a result, the atoms became highly unstable ions. At such high levels of potential energy, ions underwent thermodynamically favorable reactions that disrupted the hydrogen and covalent bonds in DNA, inducing single and double stranded breaks. This derailed the vital structure of DNA, leading to mutations, which then often lead to cancer due to failure to undergo apoptosis, or programmed cell death.
At the time of irradiation, there had been a 41% increase in the rate of leukemia, 21% increase in the rate of cancers, and 25% increase in the rate of birth defects.
Even today, the effects of the radiation can still be seen. In the city of Ozersk near Lake Karachay, the life expectancy is around 50 years, which is exceedingly low compared to the world average of 72 years.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Even though its threat level was comparable with other well-known nuclear disasters such as Chernobyl and Fukushima, Lake Karachay is not widely known. In fact, information on it remained classified by the Russian Government until the late 80s. The local residents of the lake had been in the dark about the so-called “mysterious illness” that had been afflicting them, not knowing that it was radiation poisoning. Lake Karachay shows just how impactful nuclear warfare can be even in “non-war” times and environments and why steps should be taken to rid the world of nuclear threats and influence. Today, Lake Karachay is covered by cement blocks in an effort to prevent the further irradiation of the environment and nearby residents. Even if the incident is quietly literally buried in the past, it is imperative to bring it to light to make sure the same mistakes are never made again.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of Coffee

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #17

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Samhita and Hana and we are your hosts for episode 17 called the chemistry behind coffee. Today we will be discussing how chemistry affects the production of coffee.

Segment 1: Introduction to Chemistry Behind Coffee

Coffee is indigenous to countries such as Ethiopia, Brazil, India, Vietnam, Mexico, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka. Coffee beans came to be through a story of an Ethiopian goat herder named Kaldi. When the goats he took care of started to wander, Kaldi found them consuming red berries they had found, Kaldi then gave these berries to a local monk to find out what it was. The local monk gave the berries to religious individuals who found themselves with more energy after consuming them. This was then used to keep people from falling asleep during evening prayer and was later found to be coffee beans. Coffee consists of beans originated from Coffea Arabica, which actually makes up 75% of the world’s production of coffee. The cultivation and trade of coffee began in the Arabian peninsula and soon started to become popular in the homes of those in the Middle East. From the Middle East, coffee spread to other countries in the 16th century to countries such as Persia, Egypt, Syria and Turkey. Flavored coffee was introduced when regular coffee was introduced in the mid 15th century. Middle Easterners would often blend coffee with different nuts and spices to enhance the flavor. Coffee is harvested in almost every tropical country within 1000 miles of the equator. Out of the 70 species of coffee that exist, only 3 are cultivated, meaning their beans are either raw, roasted, or whole for the making of coffee. During the roasting process of coffee beans, they undergo a chemical reaction introducing about 800 compounds, ⅓ of which make up aromatic compounds.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Chemistry Behind Coffee

As the beans go into the roaster, there is a decrease in temperature with the reaction being endothermic, meaning it is absorbing energy and that energy is used to evaporate water. Le Chatelier's Principle is used to explain how, once a reaction is at equilibrium, it can be stressed by changing variables in which case it is no longer at equilibrium. The reaction will shift to undo the stress placed on the reaction. We can use Le Chatelier's Principle to support that considering there is a decrease in temperature as the beans go into the roaster, the tendency of the reaction will be to go towards the side where there is no heat, which is the product in this case because the reaction is endothermic, meaning the heat is located on the side of the reactants. The result of this is that the reaction will want to increase the temperature because of that disturbance to return the reaction to a state of equilibrium. The bitter taste of coffee is produced during the roasting process. Heat and atoms have the ability to change the flavor of coffee while it is roasting but the biggest player in the staling of coffee is oxygen. When a solution comes in contact with oxygen it changes the molecular structure. Oxygen pulls away electrons from the other molecules. Since there are an uneven number of electrons, the molecules become unstable. They then begin to react with other molecules around them and this is an example of an intermolecular force called covalent bonding. Covalent bonding occurs between polar molecules that share electrons unequally. It is also an example of an intermolecular force, which is a force that holds molecules together and covalent bonding is one of the stronger ones. Coffee goes stale and reduces the aroma or flavor of coffee. This process doesn’t have to happen with the air that’s being trapped in the coffee machine but it can happen with the water that’s added to the ground coffee. Also, Oxidation occurs more at a high temperature. This is relevant when talking about the staling of coffee. The reason behind the staling of coffee has to do with oxidation. Oxidation is the process by which oxygen loses electrons. The oxygen reacts with the hydrogen, so that water is created. The hydrogen ion by itself makes the coffee more acidic. When the water is first being added to ground coffee, the hydrogen reacts with the oxygen, and the pH of the coffee rises, making it less acidic. Many different acids exist in ground coffee, some of which include phosphoric acid, malic acid, and acetic acid. Acids give off their hydrogen ion in a reaction known as a hydrolysis reaction. A lower pH means a higher acidity while a higher pH means a lower acidity. The pH of the original coffee is between 5.0 and 5.4 ( so its acidic) but its acidity can drop to 4.6 if it is kept hot for 2-3 hours, which is also why it’s advised to drink coffee fresh.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

My family and I buy different kinds of coffee beans from Starbucks. My sister and I go to Starbucks at least twice a week, so I was interested in why and how different flavors are created with the explanation of chemistry. I found it interesting how different flavors of coffee were invented at the same time as regular coffee. Everytime my sister and I go to stop and shop we buy different flavored syrups and creamers to enhance the taste of our coffee. Knowing little about the coffee world, and being an avid coffee drinker, I wanted to know more about coffee beans and how they were produced to become such a staple in American households. I was surprised to learn that 75% of the world’s coffee actually comes from coffee arabia and originated in the Middle East. Along with this, it was a topic both Samhita and I were passionate about so we would both be interested in learning more about coffee, its background, and its chemical aspects. This topic is important to us because it’s something that most people consume many times every day. It’s important that people know what they are consuming. Chemistry is all about explaining how the world around us works and learning about the chemistry of coffee is one way to bring together the chemistry we have learned this year and apply it to our everyday lives.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://cen.acs.org/articles/85/i38/Tweaking-Coffees-Flavor-Chemistry.html

https://www.reagent.co.uk/the-chemistry-of-coffee/

https://www.zmescience.com/science/domestic-science/science-scientists-public-30012015/

https://handground.com/grind/the-chemistry-of-grinding-coffee-beans#:~:text=The%20Maillard%20Reaction%20is%20responsible,that%20give%20coffee%20its%20brightness.

http://www.madehow.com/Volume-3/Flavored-Coffee-Bean.html

https://www.intechopen.com/books/coffee-production-and-research/a-detail-chemistry-of-coffee-and-its-analysis

https://www.coffeechemistry.com/chemical-changes-during-roasting

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of Bad Habits

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #16

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Saarim Rizavi and I am your host for episode #16 called The Chemistry Behind Bad Habits. Today I will be discussing everything there is to know behind the formation of bad habits. I’ll first be going over exactly what habits are and more specifically what a bad habit is, and I’ll also be giving a brief description into why bad habits are formed in the first place. Afterwards, I’ll dive deep into the actual science behind habit formation which consists of topics mainly from neuroscience and as a result, chemistry which is foundational for neuroscience. In this segment, I’ll also be discussing the involvement and function of different parts of the brain in habit formation. Finally, I’ll be sharing my own personal connection to negative habits and why this topic really interests me and why the field of neuroscience and neurobiology and neuropsychology interest me as a whole. Let’s get started!

Segment 1: Introduction to Habits & Habit Formation

There are many ways you can define habits but the generally agreed upon definition is that they are rituals and behaviors that are performed automatically, allowing us to perform activities without thinking about them. They are actions that you do without having to decide if you want to do them each time you commence the action. Oftentimes, you don’t even really realize that you are doing that particular action; it just kind of happens and you don’t really know or understand why. Let’s first understand the concept of good and bad habits because the title of this podcast is, the chemistry behind bad habits so what do I mean by bad habits? By bad habits, I mean habits that are harmful to your mental and/or physical health. The most common ones are for sure smoking, drugs, excessive viewing of your phone or other electronic devices, drinking alcohol often, and eating more than you’re supposed to. Even things like procrastination, drinking coffee, and swearing are considered bad habits. Let’s use the excessive viewing of your phone example. When many people wake up, the first thing they do is go on their phones and start browsing instagram, or youtube, or text messages and it’s kind of like a ritual that is done every morning. You just do it without really thinking about why you’re doing it and so it is a habit. It is a bad habit because viewing your phone a lot results in eye strain, possible neck pain, sleep problems, and I won’t get into this, but social media is known to affect mental health in negative ways. So, in general, how does something like this become a habit, especially if it is affecting you in a negative way? Most psychologists go to the habit loop to explain this and will say that this neurological loop underlies all habits. The loop consists of a cue, a routine, and a reward. A cue is basically anything that triggers the habit by reminding you of it or initiating it. Cues can be a location, a time of day, an emotional state, and more. The cue tells our brains to go into this automatic processing mode or this routine, the routine being the actual habit. The habit, the first several times it is done, is done consciously and you choose to do that action but over time as a result of the reward, it becomes automatic. It is known as a routine because whenever a cue triggers the habit, you start following this routine that your brain has developed. The series of actions that make up the routine is the same or very similar every time the habit is unconsciously put into action. The reward provides positive reinforcement for the desired behavior, making it more likely that you will produce that behavior in the future. Once your brain associates a behavior with a reward, you begin to develop a craving for that reward which can become an addiction.Your nervous system is continuously monitoring which actions satisfy your desires, even if they affect you in a harmful way over time. Many scientists also believe that you are most vulnerable to fall to bad habits during times of stress and negative emotions since you oftentimes don’t have the willpower to prevent such behaviors from forming and mainly because at those times when you often run out of mental energy, our prefrontal cortex disengages, which is the part of the brain that is used for higher level thinking, and so you slip into habits because they take less mental energy and activity. It should also be noted that a process called chunking is the root of habits, which is a process in which the brain converts a sequence of actions into an automatic routine and it is essentially a way that the brain saves effort. Habits enable our brain to work less and be more efficient since you don’t have to concentrate on every component of the routine. The disadvantage with chunking is that when you continue to chunk something, the routine becomes outcome independent and over time, the chunked actions are performed without the need for a positive reward and this is what really results in a hard to break habit. The science behind this process of chunking will also be explained in a bit.

This was an introduction into habit and habit formation and you guys should now have an understanding of what a bad habit is and how they generally form. Now, let’s get into the actual science behind habit formation which again, will include topics from neuroscience and chemistry.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Habit Formation

So, let’s get into it. Habit formation involves learned associations between an event and a behavioral response. Before we develop an automatic habit, we begin with an actual goal-directed behavior that involves complex thinking. The goal of habit formation is essentially so that the brain is able to free up processing space so that the thinking requirement for the routine that makes up the habit is turned off so that now the brain is free and can process other pieces of information. Habits are advantageous as they decrease the mental activity needed for mundane tasks. So what happens in the brain is, while learning goal-directed associations, connections between the prefrontal cortex, which is the part of the brain responsible for higher level cognitive functions like thinking and planning, and the basal ganglia, which is the part of the brain that controls voluntary movements and emotional expressions, change their activity to reflect a more automatic association. A signal arises during the early learning process in the dorsolateral striatum region of the basal ganglia. This part of the brain is able to chunk the task-related events together so the whole sequence of tasks becomes one single task. Neurons related to the task fire at the beginning and end of the task and as a result, the entire task is represented as a single event (at the beginning of the learning process, the neurons in striata emit a continuous string of signals but as actions begin to consolidate into habitual movements, the neurons fire their signals only at the beginning and end of the action performed). With repetition of the task, the strength of the chunked representation increases.

This was obviously a little confusing but a simple way to think about it is this: New neural pathways are formed when you repeat a behavior and the more a brain circuit fires, the easier it becomes for our brain to do whatever that circuit controls. As a result, information would then flow in a new, different way. Neural pathways are made of neurons connected by dendrites and dendrites increase with frequency when a behavior is performed. Neurons communicate through a process called neuronal firing, which is where the chemistry aspect can now come in. Besides containing all the normal components of a cell like a nucleus and organelles, and such, neurons also contain unique structures for receiving and sending electrical signals that make neural communication and signaling possible. Like other cells, neurons each have a cell body or soma that contains a nucleus, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, a golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and other cellular components. Neurons also have dendrites, which are branch-like structures extending away from the cell body, and their job is to receive messages from other neurons and allow those messages to travel to the cell body. Neurons also contain tube-like structures called axons. These carry electrical impulses from the cell body or from another cell’s dendrites to the structures at the opposite end of the neuron, known as an axon terminal, which can then pass the impulse to another neuron. Neurons also contain synapses which are chemical junctions between the axon terminals of one neuron and the dendrites of another. It is a space between two neurons where they can pass messages to communicate. Neurons exist in a fluid environment - they are surrounded by extracellular fluid and contain intracellular fluid. The neuronal membrane keeps these two fluids separate which is important because the electrical signal that passes through the neuron develops as a result of these intracellular and extracellular fluids being electrically different. This difference in charge across the membrane, called the membrane potential, provides energy for the signal. The electrical charge of the fluids is possible due to the ions potassium and sodium dissolved in the fluid, which are known as electrolytes (they give the fluids the ability to conduct electricity since these dissociated ions freely move in the solution, allowing a charge to flow through the solution). A change or shift in this charge across the cell is very significant in cell communication). The semi permeable nature of the neuronal membrane somewhat restricts the movement of these charged molecules, and as a result, some of the charged particles tend to become more concentrated either inside or outside the cell. Between signals, the neuron’s membrane potential is in a state of readiness known as the resting potential. In this state, sodium and potassium ions (ions are just atoms that have lost or gained an electron and so they are now positively or negatively charged) are lined up on either side of the cell membrane, ready to rush across the membrane when the neuron goes active and the membrane opens its gates (ions in high concentration ready to go to low concentration areas and positive ions ready to move to areas with negative charge due to coulombic attractions. A coulombic attraction is simply an attraction that occurs between oppositely charged particles). A sodium-potassium pump allows this movement of ions across the membrane. The sodium potassium pump is an enzyme that transports sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane against their concentration gradients in a ratio of 3 sodium ions out for every 2 potassium ions in. In order for it to function, the pump alternates between 2 major conformations: enzyme 1 and enzyme 2. In the enzyme 1 conformation, the metal binding sites have high affinity for metal cations (meaning that the metal binding sites bind to metal cations more easily) while in the enzyme 2 conformation, the metal binding sites have a lower affinity for metal ions, meaning they are less likely to bind with them. In the resting state, sodium ions are at a higher concentration outside the cell so they will tend to move into the cell while potassium ions are more concentrated inside the cell and so will move out of the cell. The inside of the cell is slightly more negatively charged compared to the outside of the cell in the resting state and so this also causes sodium to move into the cell due to Coulomb's law and the attraction of Na+ ions to the negative ionic charge inside the cell. From this resting potential state, the neuron receives a signal at the dendrites, in the form of a chemical messenger known as a neurotransmitter which binds to a chemical receptor on the dendrite. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors via intramolecular or intermolecular forces including ionic bonds (bonds that result from the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions), hydrogen bonds (intermolecular force which occurs between 2 molecules where in one of the molecules, a hydrogen is bonded to a nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine atom and the 2nd molecule contains a net dipole with an oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine. The hydrogen of that first molecule is attracted to the partially negative O, N or F, of the second molecule), dipole-dipole forces (attractive forces that exist between polar molecules), and even london dispersion forces (temporary attractive force that results when the electron in 2 adjacent atoms occupy position that make the atoms form temporary dipoles. By dipoles, I mean partially positive and partially negative poles of the atom). Generally, neurotransmitters are molecules made up of covalent bonds and so their partially positive poles or partially negative poles are attracted to the charge of the receptor protein. So as a result of this binding, small pores open on the neuronal membrane, allowing sodium ions to move into the cell propelled by charge differences (clear instance of Coulomb's law in action) but also concentration differences. This then causes the internal charge of the cell to become more positive (since sodium ions are cations which are ions with a positive charge) which is a process known as depolarization - the charge reaches a certain level called the threshold of excitation and then the neuron becomes active and the action potential begins. An action potential is essentially a rapid change in polarity that moves along the nerve fiber from neuron to neuron as the internal charge of the cell changes from partially negative to partially positive. Many additional pores open, causing a massive influx of sodium ions (cations) and a huge positive spike in the membrane potential, known as the peak action potential. At this peak, the sodium gates close and the potassium gates open and potassium ions leave the cell. This ultimately results in the neuron’s membrane returning to its resting state. This is known as repolarization, which is another change in polarity which results in the restoration of a negative membrane potential of the neuron, meaning the inside of the neuron is partially negative inside. The action potential is an electrical signal that moves from the cell body down the axon to the axon terminals. The action potential is propagated at its full strength at every point along the axon due to the action potential being an all-or-none phenomenon. So, when this action potential arrives at the terminal button, the synaptic vesicles release their neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, which is a space that separates two neurons. The neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptors of the dendrites of the adjacent neurons, and the process repeats itself in the new neuron and this means that cellular communication between neurons has been achieved. It is pretty clear that chemistry has a huge role to play in cell communication and therefore, habit formation, because it is all a result of the difference in charges and attractions across cell membranes.

So that’s how messages are transmitted from neurons and how brain cells communicate. When they communicate frequently, the connection between them strengthens and the messages get transmitted faster as they travel the same pathway over and over again until these behaviors become automatic and at this point, the prefrontal cortex isn’t even being engaged any longer. The capacity of our basal ganglia enables us to perform complex behaviors without even being mentally aware of them.

Initially when you adopt a new behavior, you engage your prefrontal cortex because you aren’t accustomed to the action yet; you need to think about each action in the routine. When something becomes a habit, you no longer think about each individual action since they are controlled by other parts of the brain like the DSL in the striatum as mentioned before which are involved with habitual and automatic behaviors. The striatum is known to release chemicals in the form of neurotransmitters that inhibit the complex thinking part of the brain. Neurons in the brain fire and give chemical rewards and once a habit and reward are tied together in the brain, reward neurons start firing before the behavior is done which results in craving.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

I am a very easily distracted individual and habits such as fingernail biting/picking, or nose picking, or any other so-called “gross” habit is a huge distraction for me but it doesn’t seem to be for most others. My brother has been a fingernail biter/picker his whole life and no matter how much I berate him or tell him to stop, he doesn’t. I never truly understood how people developed such habits but I still found it interesting how such individuals don’t even realize that they do it. Other members of my family and many individuals I know seem to have such habits and I just found it disgusting and annoying and so part of the reason why I picked this topic is to better understand such habits so I myself can just be better educated on the topic since it really isn’t their fault. It’s similar to why millions of people wake up and automatically turn to their smartphones or why 70% of all Americans wake up and go brush their teeth automatically. It’s all due to complex neural patterns in our brains and it can be frustrating because you may not know why you feel inclined to check your phone whenever you see a notification apparent, but it’s the genius of neuromarketing at play here. I have always been curious about the inner workings of our brain as well as it’s impact on cognition and overall function. I actually plan on studying neuroscience and neurology in the future because it is just something that I have an interest in for one, and because several close members of my family have neurological disorders and as a result, they also experienced mental health issues later in life due to having trouble coping with such conditions. Since I find the development of bad habits intriguing and since I already had an interest in neuroscience and mental health, I thought that it would be a pretty cool idea to connect the two by discussing the neuroscience of bad habits which includes topics from chemistry.

So, what is the importance of this topic? First of all, every person in the world has habits that control their lives, from our daily routine to the rate of our success. It’s pretty scary how much of our lives are controlled by habits, from waking up to looking at our phones, to then brushing our teeth and taking a shower, to having a cup of coffee, to chewing on the tip of your pen while thinking through a problem, to maybe shopping later in the day, and on and on. Your entire routine is controlled by habits, actions that are done automatically without you really having to think about them which enables your brain to

Chemistry of Happiness

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #15

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Beth Hooks and Emilie Sawicki and we are your hosts for episode #15 called the Chemistry of Happiness Today we will be discussing serotonin and its effects on the brain.

Segment 1: Introduction to Serotonin

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter found in the blood, the gastrointestinal tract, and the central nervous system. It acts as a neurotransmitter (substance that nerves use to send messages to one another) and a vasoconstrictor (causes blood vessels to narrow). It helps with stabilizing mood, regulating bowel movements, and allowing blood to clot.

A lack of serotonin in the brain is thought to have influence on mental illnesses including depression, bi-polar disorder, and anxiety. Because it helps balance mood, it is sometimes called the “Happy Chemical”.

Neurotransmitters transmit messages between neurons. Neurons are responsible for receiving sensory input from external sources, sending motor commands to our muscles, and for relaying the electrical signals. The interactions between these neurons and chemicals control many bodily functions, including emotional responses.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Serotonin

Serotonin is a molecule that is made up of covalent bonds that connect carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. The molecule has 26 sigma bonds and 4 pi bonds. Double bonds represent 1 sigma and 1 pi bond. Single bonds represent 1 sigma bond.

Serotonin is also a very polar molecule, and has the ability to form hydrogen bonds between serotonin molecules because of the very polar hydroxyl(OH) groups. Hydrogen bonds occur when a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to an oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom is attracted to a very polar oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom on a separate molecule. Due to these strong attractions, serotonin has some interesting properties. It has a melting point of 167.5 degrees Celsius, which, compared to water molecules melting at 0 degrees Celsius, is reasonably high. It has a higher boiling point too, at 416 degrees Celsius. This means that at room temperature, it is solid.

When the covalent bonds are broken down, a byproduct is created. When doctors try to measure serotonin levels, they actually measure the amount of the byproduct created when the molecule is broken down. By using the ideas of stoichiometry, if there are more reactants, in this case serotonin, there will have to be more products, in this case the byproduct of serotonin. So, when someone has abnormally low serotonin levels, it is because they have less measurable byproducts. This is commonly linked to mental illnesses such as depression. Tryptophan is used in the production of serotonin, so not having enough of it will result in decreased levels of serotonin.

In the treatment of depression, bi-polar, and anxiety, it is common for patients to use synthetic serotonin. The blood-brain barrier is unable to be crossed by serotonin directly, so the reactants needed to produce it are often used instead in the form of dietary supplements. Synthetic products of serotonin are used to indirectly affect serotonin levels in the brain.

The production of this is similar to how our bodies get serotonin because serotonin is made from the essential amino acid Tryptophan, which our bodies can not produce. In order to make this, the use of enzymes are required which act as catalysts. Tryptophan 5-hydroxylase, an enzyme, is the catalyst for the rate-determining step. Catalysts increase the rate of reaction by providing a different pathway and lowering the activation energy of the reaction. In the biosynthesis of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), energy is required to break apart the covalent bonds within the tryptophan reactant.

Since covalent bonds are very strong and difficult to break, a large amount of energy is required for the reaction, so fewer particles have enough energy to proceed through the reaction. Given this, the catalyst tryptophan hydroxylase is used to lower the activation energy. By lowering the energy needed for the reaction to take place, more particles have the required energy to proceed through the reaction, so the reaction occurs faster. This allows for the production of more serotonin.

If the enzymes needed for catalysis are missing, less serotonin will be produced, so the introduction of these enzymes into the gut is needed to maintain a healthy balance of serotonin. This catalyst is introduced into the body by ingesting food. Certain foods have more tryptophan, which is the reactant needed in the synthesis of serotonin. By ingesting more foods that include this molecule, including but not limited to salmon, eggs, spinach, and milk, serotonin levels can increase. In a sense, this just means that eating certain foods will make you happier. Tryptophan is an essential amino acid, so it can only be introduced into the body by food. This is one reason that people with eating disorders have a higher probability of developing mental illnesses, including depression and anxiety.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Just like most people (I would assume), we want to be happy. Picking a topic surrounding the idea of happiness seemed interesting. However, most of our research ended up leaning in the opposite direction, towards mental health disorders and the lack of serotonin often associated with these conditions. While this isn’t as uplifting of a topic, it is definitely still very important. For example, one of the most common conditions associated with lower serotonin levels, depression, is diagnosed in 17.3 million American adults. This is only the number of people with a formal diagnosis, so the expected value is likely much higher.

With so many people struggling, learning about just one possible cause is important for gaining an understanding of mental health in general. We have struggled with mental health issues for over a decade, so we found this very interesting. It may not have been the happy, cheerful route that we originally had planned, but that doesn’t make it any less valuable. And the Google searches of two juniors aren't exactly going to make any breakthroughs on research of mental health, but the more that topics like this are studied, the closer we will get to finding a true cure for these awful conditions.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/serotonin

https://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_08/d_08_m/d_08_m_dep/d_08_m_dep.html#:~:text=Serotonin%20is%20a%20molecule%20composed,of%20depressed%20people%20only%20indirectly.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/tryptophan-hydroxylase#:~:text=Life%20Without%20Brain%20Serotonin&text=TPH1%20is%20mainly%20synthesized%20by,enteric%20neurons%20in%20the%20gut.

http://chemistry-reference.com/q_compounds.asp?CAS=50-67-9

https://www.softschools.com/formulas/chemistry/serotonin_formula/488/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3325323/

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/322416#serotonin-vs-tryptophan

https://www.worldofmolecules.com/emotions/serotonin.htm

https://www.dbsalliance.org/education/depression/statistics/

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of Ice Cream

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #14

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Paz *and my name is Olivia* and we are your hosts for episode #14 called The Chemistry Behind Ice Cream Today we will be discussing how ice cream is made and stays cold.

Segment 1: Introduction to Ice Cream

I think we’ve all heard of ice cream, the cold dessert we have on hot summer days. A multitude of flavors including mint chocolate chip, strawberry, and the classic vanilla and chocolate. The creation of ice cream in its origins have been widely disputed but it reaches as far back as the second century B.C.. Important historical figures like Alexander the Great, Nero Caesar, and King Soloman enjoyed a cold treat similar to the modern ice cream many of us eat today. Today, the total frozen dairy production is over 1.6 billion gallons making it the most popular dessert in the United States; however, few people actually know the chemistry involved in sprinkle covered and cherry topped frozen treats!

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Ice Cream

Topic 1 - Stabilizers

The first topic we are going to cover today is stabilizers in ice cream. Stabilizers have many purposes, but one of the main ones is to increase the mix viscosity of ice cream, which means to thicken the mixture. This increases creaminess, helps the ice cream resist melting, and limits the growth of ice and lactose crystals during storage. Stabilizers help ice cream resist melting because as the viscosity increases, the rate at which ice cream melts slows. And stabilizers help limit the growth of ice and lactose crystals through a phenomenon called diffusion kinetics. As viscosity increases, the diffusion or movement of water molecules decreases and ice crystal growth slows. So, ice cream doesn’t have those crystals in its creamy mixture. Stabilizers also prevent a water sirum mixture from leaking out of the mixture while it melts and helps prevent shrinkage during storage, so ice cream is more enjoyable. The best stabilizer has proved to be .2% sodium alginate because this increases the viscosity of ice cream the most. The formula of sodium alginate is C6H9NaO7and it is a combination of sodium (Na) and alginic acid.

Stabilizers are a type of emulsifier, which are used to connect polar and nonpolar substances. Ice cream is made of milk, which is made of water, which is polar, and made of fats and oils, which are nonpolar. Emulsifiers are particles which are polar on one end and nonpolar on the other end. In sodium alginate, the positive sodium ions make up the polar end of the emulsifier. The sodium ions experience dipole dipole intermolecular forces with the water in the ice cream. The nonpolar alginate makes up the other end of the emulsifier. The alginic acid experiences London dispersion intermolecular forces with the oils and fats in the ice cream. Once the emulsifier connects the milk of the ice cream with the oils and the fats of the ice cream through intermolecular forces, the separate ingredients combine, thickening the substance as a whole and creating a creamier ice cream that is more enjoyable.

Topic 2 - freezing point depression

Another important idea in the ice cream process for the best bite is the freezing point. The best ice creams have a lower freezing point than water which allows for a softer ice cream both for eating and getting out of the container. Instead of the fat concentration impacting freezing point, as many people think, it is the sugar concentration and its bonds with water that change the freezing point. Just for some background, hydrogen bonds between water molecules are very strong and prevent most movement of particles. At colder temperatures, the H2O molecules move slower, so the hydrogen bonds, which are a very strong intermolecular force, are even stronger. Since this makes the particles very close together, ice forms since solids are the state of matter in which particles are closest together. When a solute, in this case sugar, is added to water, it creates a solution. In this solution the sugar molecules prevent water molecules from creating hydrogen bonds and without the hydrogen bonds, ice cannot form. Therefore, the solution has to be put at such a lower temperature that the hydrogen bonds form and ice is created so ice cream is cold enough to eat. The ice cream must be at a lower temperature when it freezes, so the freezing point decreases.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Thank you for sticking with us through all that chemistry talk! And thank you to Olivia for her wonderful explanation of sugar and hydrogen bonds in ice cream. Now, onto the fun part of the discussion.

We are interested in this topic because it is a part of our everyday lives. I don’t know about you, but I end up treating myself to some Ben & Jerry’s at least once a day. It is also important to us that we understand the chemistry behind the food that we both eat regularly. Although we only named two ways that chemistry and ice cream are related, there are actually many ways in which chemistry can define the properties that ice cream possesses. Also, these tips can help create an even better ice cream if any of our listeners would like to give it a try! Olivia, you brought in cupcakes today and cream puffs yesterday. Will ice cream be your next endeavor?

I’ll give it a try! And I’ll be sure to use a stabilizer and plenty of sugar to give you the best pint possible.

I look forward to it!

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

http://icecreamscience.com/stabilizers-ice-cream/#fn-2227-4

https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/resources/highschool/chemmatters/past-issues/archive-2013-2014/ice-cream-chemistry.html

https://www.idfa.org/the-history-of-ice-cream

https://foodcrumbles.com/secret-of-ice-cream-freezing-point-depression/#:~:text=The%20freezing%20point%20depression%20in%20ice%20cream&text=Water%20is%20the%20main%20 components,interferes%20with%20the%20crystal%20formation.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of Acid Rain 2

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #13

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Tejas and I am your host for episode #13 called The Chemistry of Acid Rain. Today we will be discussing the causes and effects of acid rain and the chemistry behind it.

Segment 1: Introduction to The Chemistry of Acid Rain

If you’ve studied chemistry, and even if you haven’t, you might have heard of the term pH. A pH of 7 means the solution is neutral, a pH over 7 means a solution is basic, and a pH under 7 means that a solution is acidic. So, from the words acid rain, you might guess that it means rain that has a pH much lower than 7, and you’d be right — that’s exactly what acid rain is. But how does it form?

Acid rain is formed when sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides (NOx for short) react with water in the atmosphere to form acids. Then, the sulfuric and nitric acids that were formed fall to the ground mixed with water in a process called wet deposition. This is what you probably think of when you hear the words acid rain, but acid rain also includes dry deposition. This is when acids don’t have the moisture to come down as rain, and instead attach to surfaces and form even larger acidic properties. Then, the next time it rains, these particles get washed into the water and travel through the ground, damaging plants and animals and potentially entering lakes or rivers.

While acid rain is a natural phenomenon, as natural sources such as volcanoes also emit Nox and sulfur dioxide. However, most of the time, the problem is man-made. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOx in the atmosphere come from electric power generators, which burn fossil fuels to generate electricity. Cars and other vehicles also emit these gases, and so do oil refineries and other pieces of equipment used in the manufacturing industry.

Because acid rain can harm humans and kill wildlife, it’s important to understand the chemistry behind it. Once we understand the causes of acid rain and why it occurs, we can start trying to limit the amount of sulfur dioxide and NOx we put into the air.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Acid Rain

Sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides are produced by the combustion of fossil fuels. When these gases rise up into the atmosphere, they can react in a few different ways to produce acids.

Two molecules of sulphur dioxide can react with diatomic oxygen gas to produce two molecules of sulfur trioxide. Then, each of those sulfur trioxide molecules reacts with liquid water from cloud droplets to produce H2SO4, or sulphuric acid. This is the acid that then falls to the ground with water as acid rain.

Alternatively, 2 molecules of nitrogen monoxide can react with diatomic oxygen gas to produce two molecules of nitrogen dioxide. Then, those two molecules react with water to produce nitric acid, HNO3, and nitrous acid, HNO2.

So we have these three end products, H2SO4, HNO3, and HNO2. What makes these acids? According to the Bronsted-Lowry theory, any compound that can transfer a proton, or an H+ ion, to another compound is an acid. As you can see from the makeup of these products, they all have hydrogen atoms ready to be given away. However, two of these products are more important than the other. These are nitric acid and sulfuric acid. Both of these are strong acids; this means they are more stable when they have donated an H+ ion. Strong acids dissociate fully to completion, so when nitric acid and sulfuric acid dissolve in water, they donate an H+ ion to H20 to form large amounts of H30+. This is important because H30+ is what makes things acidic; therefore, when nitric acid and sulfuric acid dissolve in water, they produce highly acidic solutions. This is what makes up acid rain and makes it dangerous.

Now that we’ve talked about how acid rain forms and why the emission of sulfur dioxide and NOx produce highly acidic solutions, we should talk about how this acidity is measured. This goes back to the beginning of our podcast when I mentioned pH — a pH of 7 is neutral, over 7 is basic, and under 7 is acidic. But what exactly is pH? Well, a pH is an easy way to understand exactly how much H30+ is in a solution. To find pH, you take the negative log of the concentration of hydronium in the solution. The higher the concentration of H3O+, the more acidic the solution and the lower the pH. As we just learned, acid rain is formed when the strong acids nitric acid and sulfuric acid dissolve in water. This means that acid rain has a very low pH. More specifically, any precipitation with a pH lower than 5.6 is classified as acid rain.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

So why is this important, and why did I choose to do a podcast about this? What made acid rain interesting to me is that most people have heard of acid rain, but they don’t really know what it is or how it works. When the topic of pollution and saving the environment is brought up, you hear a lot about how the burning of fossil fuels traps carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, but not as much about the emission of sulfur dioxide and NOx. Hopefully after listening to this podcast, you understand the relationship between fossil fuels and acid rain — it's yet another reason why we have to switch to clean energy if we want to save our planet.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain

https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain#:~:text=Acid%20rain%20results%20when%20sulfur,before%20falling%20to%20the%20ground.

https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/stem-in-context/what-acid-rain

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of Maintaining Art Pieces

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #12

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Jiya Pandit and my name is Olivia Kim and we are your hosts for episode #12 called the chemistry of art restoration and conservation. Today we will be discussing how many art pieces have been fixed and preserved through the application of chemistry concepts.

Segment 1: Introduction to Chemistry of maintaining and fixing art pieces

When you enter an art museum, you may forget the many efforts of artists, conservators, and even scientists behind the impressive masterpieces. Just as the paintings are something to marvel at, the meticulous process behind restoring and preserving the art works is just as fascinating. While the process of fixing art may appear to just consist of applying new layers, laboratory methods - some of which we have explored and learned about in AP Chemistry - are employed to ensure the best materials and techniques are being used to repair the artwork.

Although the techniques used to restore and conserve art can be very similar, there is a key difference between art restoration and conservation. Art restoration refers to the process of fixing an object so that it returns to its original condition or appearance, while art conservation refers to the process of preserving an artwork with the intent of preventing any further deterioration or discoloration. Art conservation was first introduced during World War 2 due to the findings of undamaged works from Michelangelo and Vermeer. This was one of the first leading causes for conservation practices after the war. A famous example of art restoration is of the Sistine Chapel frescoes throughout the 1980s-1990s. However, not all art restorations or art conservation efforts are successful, which is why chemistry and other scientific disciplines have had a greater presence in the field of art.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Art Restoration and conservation.

Now that we’ve discussed the historical aspect of art restoration and conservation, let’s delve deeper into how it’s connected to chemistry. I will be covering art restoration, and later, Jiya will take over with art conservation!

Topic 1: Art restoration

The first part of fixing and maintaining art is the process of art restoration. Certain art restoration processes involve methods we’ve learned about this year, but it really depends on the material used to create the art (you’re going to hear me say this a lot!).

A crucial part of art restoration is making sure that the methods employed to fix the respective art piece are with the techniques and mediums used by the original artist. Especially in very old artworks, where the materials are not commonly used or easy to access today, applying scientific methods to art is necessary. To better understand the process, I will be talking about a specific art restoration case. In the restoration of “The Plague in Lucca'' (a painting done by Italian artist Lorenzo Viani), such methods were used. For some more context, Viani’s painting had undergone a restoration process post-WWII, however that was not very effective. Recently, the artwork has undergone another restoration, this time with a more scientific and successful approach.

The restoration of Viani’s painting, as with many other artworks, was a two step process. The first part of the process - which relies heavily on non-invasive techniques - allows scientists and artists to look at the details of the painting, such as the different paint layers and the original colors of the artwork. Images of the painting were taken at different wavelengths, which relates to concepts of electromagnetic radiation we briefly covered this year in AP Chemistry. Since each element produces a different atomic spectrum and emits a unique light when electrons transition between energy levels, the multiband imaging method helped scientists determine what elements are found in the pigments of the painting. For example, in Viani’s artwork, samples of lead, zinc, mercury, chromium, barium, and iron were detected in the pigments. This technique also helps scientists identify the exact colors used by Viani, which is very helpful for art conservators. In combination with the emission spectrum, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis is also used to determine what elements make up certain pigments in the painting. XRF can identify the chemical makeup of the pigments by measuring the fluorescent X-ray emitted by a sample when the samples becomes exposed to an X-ray source. Since each element produces a unique fluorescent X-ray (similar to multiband imaging), data from XRF can provide specific information about the pigments. For instance, data from XRF indicates that a mixture of vermillion (HgS - mercury (ii) sulfide) and chrome green (Cr2O3 - chromium (iii) oxide) pigments could have been used by Viani.

The second part of the process involves destructive methods, including a combination of mass spectrometry, Raman analysis, and gas chromatography. Destructive methods give more insight about the exact nature of the chemical, since non-invasive techniques can only reveal so much. Very small samples of the artwork underwent the process of mass spectrometry and gas chromatography, and the results of these two methods provided valuable information about what oils were used to bind the pigments. Mass spectrometry is the process of injecting atoms from the sample into the mass spectrometer instrument, which produces a mass spectrum. The mass spectrometer uses deflection to determine an object’s mass, and this can be used to identify the specific elements in the sample. Knowing the chemical makeup of the oils that hold the pigments together is crucial to the art restoration process because art restorers want to fix the painting using mediums that are very similar if not identical to the materials used when the artwork was first created.

Even though I’ve focused on the chemistry of one specific art restoration case, the techniques used to restore Viani’s painting are fairly consistent with other cases. As I’ve said before, the laboratory techniques are very dependent on the age and materials of the artwork, but there is a general two step analytical process when deciding the best way to mend the painting.

Topic 2: Art conservation

The second part of preserving art is art conservation, which is the process of preserving art pieces whether it be architecture or even statues from future damages.

A big part of conserving art requires a lot of in-depth research and analysis of either a painting or sculpture to receive accurate data regarding what procedure should be used to fix the art piece so that there isn’t much damage in the future. This is where the AP Chemistry topics, mass spectrometry and gas chromatography (known as GC/MS) come into play. These specific techniques allow biologists to identify the compounds within the art piece by taking a tiny piece of the art and placing it into a GC/MS machine, which can then help pinpoint what treatment should be used to conserve the art. The GC/MS machine can also determine the reasoning behind discoloration or cracks on a piece.

For example, there was a mission for conserving Buddha statues of Bamiyan, which represent Buddhist Art. During the war in Afghanistan in 2001, the statues began to get popular and well known, causing the Taliban to destroy the statues. Through the following years, organizations began to conserve the destroyed statues using techniques such as GC/MS leading to the findings of the organic paint binders and a deeper understanding of cultures in Asia. Through AP Chemistry topics such as extractions, desalting, and hydrolysis, substances such as egg proteins in this specific conservation, from the samples can be determined via the GC/MS.

So what’s the science behind this? The full procedure of the GC/MS occurs in multiple steps. The 1st step, like in art restoration, is analyzing the art. One way this can be done is through nano-indentation microscopy, allowing scientists to analyze small parts of a piece to figure out if there is degradation or oxidation by applying a force onto a small piece of the art. Once analyzing has finished, the 2nd step begins. Gas chromatography is the process of separating substances in a compound. Through the use of injecting the sample into a mobile phase, with the help of an inert gas, it picks up the substances to get tested. The other phase is the stationary phase, which is when the mobile phase passes through a column. The data gathered from the chromatography is transferred to a chromatogram, a graph that shows the different components in the sample, each represented by a peak. Adsorption, an AP Chemistry concept, also occurs during gas chromatography. Adsorption occurs during the stationary phase in the column causing the substance to separate. This leads to the mass spectrometry section where the spectrometry analyzes each gas, specifically the masses of each of the substances by deflection like Olivia said. Thus helping determine the actual substances in the art piece by comparing the masses to other known masses.

Along with what I previously stated, although GC/MS can be very helpful in determining materials in the art piece, a particular aspect that scientists are still trying to figure out when trying to conserve art pieces, is whether or not the treatment going to be used is safe, that it won’t cause future damages, or that they wouldn't lose the original piece. However, removing surface dirt, varnish, retouching areas, and fixing dents, can have a big impact on small pieces that need conserving.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Olivia: You may be wondering why we chose this specific topic. The reason I chose the topic of art conservation and restoration is because I really enjoy making art in my free time, and I’m interested in potentially studying art history in college! Whatever I end up doing, I want to keep art a part of my life, so learning about how STEM related subjects - like chemistry - are directly related to artistic fields is really fascinating!

Jiya: The reason that I chose art conservation and restoration as the topic is because I also have an interest in art, and although I'm not a great artist, it's entertaining and fun to do on the side! I don’t particularly want to do anything in the future related to art, but I know I want to keep art in my life whether it be drawing or painting and incorporating chemistry into art, two things that I enjoy, are really interesting to learn about and to see how chemistry is in even the smallest of things!

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. See you next time!

Sources:

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry Behind Diamonds

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #11

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Lilly Wurtz and my name is Annie Stocks Natalias and we are your hosts for episode #11 called The Chemistry Behind Diamonds. Today we will be discussing the structure of diamonds as well as the main method used to create artificial diamonds: the high pressure, high temperature method.

Segment 1: Introduction to DIAMOND STRUCTURE

Diamonds are made of elemental carbon and are allotropes of carbon. Allotropes are the same element but with different structures and arrangements in space.
Diamonds form covalent network solids. Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 4 other carbon atoms with covalent bonds. Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons so that the valence shell is satisfied. A repeating pattern forms a 3D network of atoms.
“Real” diamonds (made naturally) were formed billions of years ago deep in the earth’s mantle and were brought to the surface most likely by a volcanic eruption. They take very long to form, making them essentially nonrenewable.
Synthetic (or lab grown) diamonds can grow in just one week in a lab. These diamonds are not often used for jewelry but rather used industrially.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind CREATING SYNTHETIC DIAMONDS

There are many methods used to create diamonds. This includes high pressure, high temperature, chemical vapor deposition, detonation of explosives, and ultrasound cavitation.
These methods use something called diamondoids, which are very small pieces of diamond.
In the High Pressure, High Temperature method, the large amount of pressure needed is supplied by the “press”.
In the high pressure, high temperature method, diamond seeds are placed at the bottom of a press. The press is heated above 1400 °C which melts a solvent metal. The metal then causes the high purity carbon source to dissolve. This solution is transferred to the small diamond seeds and the precipitate grows the diamondoid into a large, synthetic diamond.
The reason you are able to dissolve the carbon into the metal is because of the strength of the various intermolecular forces. Adding heat and pressure, adds so much energy that the intermolecular forces are overcome. This causes the particles to separate because the forces holding them together are weakened. These weakened forces in both the carbon and the metal allow the solution to form.
The solute-solvent attractions are stronger than both the solute-solute attractions and the solvent-solvent attractions. This creates an alloy, which is normally a metal dissolved into another metal but it can also be created with carbon dissolved into a metal. This solution becomes supersaturated, meaning that the metal can’t hold any more carbon. The carbon then precipitates in the form of a crystal, growing the diamondoid.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

You can condense a sometimes multi billion year process into less than a week.
Many of the diamonds found in the past and those used today can be dated back to the formation of the earth and being able to recreate something formed by such a profound event as the creation of the planet in a simple lab is amazing.
Even though they have not been widely adopted by jewelers, they look identical to the naked eye. This is because they are chemically identical and are diamonds. This is why using the words “real” and “fake” aren’t accurate. They are both real, one is just lab grown. Because synthetic diamonds are, in fact, “real” diamonds, they will last forever, which is the main allure of diamonds in the first place.
Diamonds aren’t a complicated compound but rather the form of a single element. Imagine the fact that graphite and diamonds are the same thing just in different forms.
They are incredibly important in industrial settings as well as because of their use in engagement rings and jewelry.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.forbes.com/sites/meriameberboucha/2018/08/22/this-is-how-synthetic-diamonds-grow/?sh=29d7204869d7

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_diamond

https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=8494

https://www.impressjewelers.com/blog/how-are-diamonds-made-and-what-are-diamonds-made

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-can-graphite-and-diam/#:~:text=In%20a%20diamond%2C%20the%20carbon,an%20infinite%20network%20of%20atoms.&text=Moreover%2C%20diamonds%20disperse%20light.

https://www.diamonds.pro/education/how-diamonds-are-formed/

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Building a Better Burger

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #10

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Finnian Mayer and I am your host for episode #10 called Building a better burger. today I will be discussing how chemistry can be used to create the best possible burger.

Segment 1: Introduction to Burgers

One of the quintessential fast food items, the burger has transcended its humble origins to become an absolute staple in the food scene, being served everywhere from McDonalds to Michelin starred restaurants. And while almost every burger shares a similar base of characteristics, having a top and bottom bun with a beef, chicken, or vegetable based patty in the middle, burgers are the ultimate customizable food, with choices that can be made on every inch of the burger, creating a unique experience tailored to an individual's tastes and preferences. While I will certainly not claim to make the best burger in the world, nor even the best burger I have ever had, I have come up with a recipe which I believe that I, and hopefully others, will thoroughly enjoy. I have always been a fan of spicy food, so my burger will have homemade mayonnaise flavored with calabrian chillies ( a pickled italian chili) and black pepper. To balance the spiciness and richness of the mayo, I will also add a tangy slaw to the top of the burger. The burger itself will be made of dry-aged ground brisket, while the bun will be a toasted brioche roll.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Burgers

Mayo:
In order to get the best and most flavorful Mayonnaise, it is best to make your own. And, although it might initially seem like a difficult food to create, it is really only two ingredients which come together in a simple emulsion.
An emulsion occurs when two normally immiscible substances, such as oil and egg yolk, see a reduction in their surface tension allowing the substances to mix.
In cooking, emulsions require agitation, such as why oil and vinegar dressing must be shaken to mix it into a homogeneous substance.
For mayonnaise, the oil must be added drop by drop to the egg yolk so as to slowly decrease the egg yolk’s surface tension and gradually begin the emulsion. After every drop, vigorous whisking is needed. Once the emulsion begins, the oil can be added much more quickly.
Slaw:
Another key aspect of a burger is the slaw which tops the burger itself, made up predominantly of acid (rice wine vinegar and lemon juice) and vegetales (cabbage and radishes) and fruit (pineapple).
Even though it wouldn’t really be possible in the first place, a burger topped with only acid would be too strong and ruin the taste of the burger.
Topping a burger with raw cabbage would also not achieve a desirable effect, as it would be too plain and alkaline, having no taste to enhance the burger.
Cabbage has the added property of serving as an acid-base indicator when it is juiced, turning red when an H3O+ is attached and yellow when an OH- is attached. This is due to red and purple cabbage having an Anthocyanin molecule.
Beef:
Dry Aging
One of the ways to enhance the burger itself is by dry-aging the meat before grinding it.
For our burgers, we will use brisket as it is natural around an 80% protein 20% fat ratio, which is perfect for a rich, smash style burger that we are going for.
Brisket is normally around 75% water when it is first butchered, and while water is an important part of beef, too much water results in a weaker Maillard reaction and less flavor.
To combat this hurdle, we will dry age the brisket before grinding it. Dry aging is the slow process of hanging beef or leaving it on a rack for weeks in order to reduce the water content of it through slow evaporation. As the beef’s temperature slowly rises in the temperature controlled dry aging room, water evaporates off of the surface of the beef.
Cooking: Maillard reaction
The Maillard reaction is the browning on the surface of the meat that gives beef its appealing flavor.
This reaction only occurs at high heat, indicating a high activation energy needed (boiled beef is gray as no maillard reaction occurs)
In order to get the best maillard reaction with the most caramelization of the beef, I will use a cast iron pan as those hold heat extremely well and can be used on the top of a charcoal grill, which is able to get much hotter than a conventional gas burning or electric stove.
Cast iron is made from iron, which is an amazing electrical conductor due to the metallic bonding that occurs with the metal cation and a sea of electrons. The electrons in the sea move, thus creating the moving charged particles required for electrical conductivity.
Bun:
Toasted brioche bun is my choice for this burger.
By toasting the bun, the outer layer of the bread undergoes a combustion reaction which is a chemical change. The combustion reaction is indicated by the smoke that arises from the toaster or pan in which the bread is toasted.
This is also an endothermic reaction as the bread takes heat from the pan (its surroundings) and thus feels warm.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

I have always been interested in cooking and love to try and replicate meals that I have eaten out at home. Burgers are one of my favorite foods and I have been fortunate enough to try burgers from around the country and even in a few foreign countries. Along this burger journey, I have had some incredible burgers with delicious elements, such as an amazing topping or especially flavorful beef. That said, almost none of the burgers I’ve had have gotten everything right, from the bun all the way to the toppings and patty. My goal was to use chemistry and some of my personal taste to create a burger which hit on all of the flavors I wanted it to while being prepared in the optimal way to get the most out of each and every ingredient.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.provisioneronline.com/articles/106468-impact-of-two-chamber-rh-on-water-loss-in-dry-aged-beef#:~:text=One%20of%20the%20main%20changes,the%20meat%20from%20spoilage%20microorganisms.&text=This%20plastic%20bag%20application%20reduces,thus%20increasing%20saleable%20meat%20yield.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4872334/#:~:text=Meat%20flavor-,The%20key%20effect%20of%20dry%20aging%20is%20the%20concentration%20of,%E2%80%9Cdry%2Daged%20beef%E2%80%9D.&text=earthy%20flavor%20profile.-,During%20the%20dry%20aging%20process%2C%20the%20juices%20are%20absorbed%20into,4%2C%206%2C%2021%5D.

https://www.netmeds.com/health-library/post/alkaline-diet-5-incredible-alkaline-rich-foods-that-promotes-overall-health#:~:text=Green%20leafy%20veggies%20are%20said,and%20build%20a%20robust%20immunity.

https://www.seriouseats.com/what-is-maillard-reaction-cooking-science

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of Blue Light and Eyes

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #9

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Scott Hunt and I am your host for episode #9 called Blue light Today I/we will be discussing how blue light affects your eyes.

Segment 1: Introduction to Blue light

Introduce the episode topic

Include definitions, vocabulary, interesting background information and context

Light is an electromagnetic radiation that travels in waves and is a form of energy. The different colors of light is due to differences in wavelength and frequency of the waves. A short wavelength will have a higher frequency which will result in more energy. For example ultraviolet rays is another type of electromagnetic radiation that has a smaller wavelength than visible light and therefore more energy per photon.

Retina.- a light sensitive tissue that when light hits it, the retina sends signals.

Cornea- a transparent on the outside of the eye

Pupil- the black part of your eye

Iris- the colored part of the eye

Lens- right behind the iris and pupil

Photoreceptor cells- cells in the retina.

The cells need molecules called retinal to sense light and trigger the signals that get sent to the brain

Excitation is when photons and the energy from photons is absorbed by a molecule. The molecule is then in an excited state, which is when an electron moves into a higher energy level. A result of excitation can be a reaction

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Blue light

Have a natural transition into an example… no need to say “segment 2”

Provide detailed explanations of the chemistry that is related to your topic.

Remember that you must have a minimum of 2 topics from ap chem that you can explain here as related to your episode

There is natural and artificial. Natural is the wavelengths that bounce off the air molecules and cause the sky to be blue. Artificial l blue light is the light from our phones and technology. Blue light might appear to look white or other colors. Blue light has one of the shortest wavelengths (400 to 450 nanometers) and highest energy. The short wavelengths are not able to be blocked or reflected by the eye’s cornea and lens. This allows the blue light to have direct contact with the retina.

Blue light exposure causes the retinal molecules to go through excitation. The energy from blue light photons is absorbed by retinal molecules which react to form non degradable material known as lipofuscins which is toxic as well as retinal condensation products.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

What interested you in this topic? Why is it important? Anything else you’d like to share.

I am interested in this topic because I use the computer often playing games and doing school work as well as using my phone in my free time. It is important because computers and phones are the future and something everyone uses in their daily lives.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://phys.org/news/2018-08-chemists-blue.html#:~:text=Karunarathne's%20lab%20found%20that%20blue,D.

https://blutechlenses.com/blog/what-is-blue-light/#:~:text=Blue%20light%20is%20a%20color,produces%20higher%20amounts%20of%20energy.

https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/healthy-vision/how-eyes-work#:~:text=When%20light%20hits%20the%20retina,into%20the%20images%20you%20see.

https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/will-blue-light-from-electronic-devices-increase-my-risk-of-macular-degeneration-and-blindness-2019040816365

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-28254-8

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excited_state

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry Behind Acid Rain

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #8

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Barron Brothers , my name is James Huang and we are your hosts for episode #8, The Chemistry of Acid Rain. Today we will be discussing why acid rain is so harmful and its effects on the city and the ecosystem.

Segment 1: Introduction to Acid Rain

As the world population continues to increase, the resources required to maintain this population also increase, including factories to make products for the consumer, cars for transportation, and food. However, many do not consider the environmental implications just by living in today’s world as our environmental situation continues to decline. One of these effects is the increase of acid rain due to the amount of pollutants released by industrial processes and traditional power plants.

Acid rain is rain mixed with pollutants that lower the pH of the rain. A weak acid is an acid that dissociates little in water, versus a strong acid that dissociates almost completely. Ka values measure how much an acid dissociates in water. For weak acids, Ka<1, and Ka>1 for strong acids. A buffer is a solution made up of a weak acid and its conjugate base that resists changes in pH.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Acid Rain

Non-polluted rainwater is slightly acidic (pH=5.6) because the evaporated water reacts naturally with the carbon dioxide in the air, forming carbonic acid. Carbonic acid then dissolves into hydronium ions (H3O+) and its conjugate base (the negative ion dissolved in the solution - in this case, HCO3-). In the case of carbonic acid, there is still a hydrogen atom available in the conjugate base of what we call mechanism 1. With this, HCO3- reacts with water again in the second mechanism. Here are some reactions to show you what we mean:

Pollutants from factories and car emissions contain gaseous sulfates and nitrates, which react with the evaporated water as well in reactions similar to carbonic acid.

Comparing the Ka values of the acids, we can see the effects of each additional pollutant on the acidity of the acid rain. As the Ka value increases, the amount of dissolved acid particles increases, lowering the pH of the rain more.

The Ka values of HNO3 and H2SO4 are relatively high compared to relatively low ones, such as H2CO3. Since CO2 is present naturally in the air, this explains why rainwater is slightly acidic. However, nitrates and sulfates are a result of unnatural pollution, such as from factories and fertilizers. Because of these Ka values, H2SO4 and HNO3 reduce the pH even further and have a greater effect than H2CO3, as the pH of acid rain ranges from 4.2 to 4.4. Also, the pH scale is logarithmic, meaning that the difference in acidity between water (pH=7) and rainwater is much lower than that of rainwater to acid rain, even if the pH difference is smaller. In addition, car and factory pollution forms additional CO2, forming more H2CO3 and decreasing the pH of acid rain further.

Acidic rain also reacts with building materials, such as limestone, aluminum, and steel, causing corrosion. Limestone (CaCO3) reacts with sulfuric acid to produce calcium sulfate (CaSO4), carbon dioxide, and water.

Therefore, the sulfuric acid in acid rain strips away at the calcium carbonate, leading to faster weathering compared to normal rain. This is very problematic, as limestone is used in both cement and concrete, so acid rain will have a severe effect on most buildings and structures around the world. In aluminum and steel, a similar process occurs, as various acids react with the metal to produce an aqueous solution, corroding the metal on certain buildings. Since steel is made up mostly of iron (97%), the iron is an appropriate representation of the decay of steel. For sulfuric acid, here are some reactions depicting the process:

Since many skyscrapers are made up of steel, this is a problem particularly in cities. Another effect of acid rain is how it takes away nutrients from the soil. The hydronium ions pull out vital nutrients from the clay, such as magnesium ions, and replace them with hydronium ones.

When the H3O+ in acid rain flows from the clay and mixes with lakes and other bodies of water, the pH of the water will drop. Most ecosystems are very sensitive to pH drops; i.e., most fish eggs will not hatch if pHwater<5.

Resisting acid rain

Soils with calcium carbonate act as a buffer against acid rain. There are many ways to resist the effects of acid rain, one of which being the soil itself. Soil contains calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which can react with sulfuric acid to produce the weaker carbonic acid, as shown below.

Calcium carbonate can also be used to reduce acid rain at its source. In factories where sulfur dioxide is produced, calcium carbonate can be injected into smokestacks, reacting with the sulfur dioxide to produce pH-neutral calcium sulfate (CaSO4). Carbon dioxide is still produced, but, using the same concept as the soil, the Ka of carbonic acid is lower than that of sulfuric acid. Therefore, this would lessen the factory’s impact on the pH of the rain, as a smaller Ka value has less impact on the environment.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

The issue of acid rain is paramount because today’s society is ignoring global warming and continuing to pollute. If excessive pollution continues, acid rain will become more common. This will cause more damage to ecosystems and buildings and endanger the safety and quality of life for many across the globe. We as the younger generation will grow up in this world, so we must pioneer the changes needed, such as regulating factory pollution, basing the economy on electric transportation rather than oil, and creating more green space free from chemical pollution. This is the only way to improve this world for us and all future generations.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-run podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry Behind Makeup

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #7

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Victoria Villagran and I am your host for episode #7 called The Chemistry of Makeup Today I/we will be discussing what exactly is going on in our makeup chemically.

Segment 1: Introduction to Makeup Chemistry

What is Makeup?

Cosmetics that are used to enhance or alter someone’s appearance
Lipstick, eyeshadow, powders, and creams
They contain water, emulsifier, preservative, thickener, emollient, colour, fragrance and pH stabilisers (buffers)
The water dissolves other ingredients, it helps them mix together, acting as a solvent to dissolve other ingredients and forming emulsions for consistency.
Oil and wax help makeup go on smoothly, and is often used to help skin stay soft
Many other chemicals go into makeup. Normally, an emulsifier is included, a chemical that makes oil and water mix together or keeps unlike substances from separating
Most makeup has preservatives, as well. These keep the makeup usable longer, preventing the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, which can spoil the product and possibly harm the user; they can be natural or synthetic
Emollients soften the skin by preventing water loss. They are used in a wide range of lipsticks, lotions and cosmetics.
Thickening agents work to give products an appealing consistency from four families; lipid thickeners, naturally derived thickeners, mineral thickeners, and synthetic thickeners.
Chemicals, both natural and synthetic, are added to cosmetics to provide an appealing fragrance. Even ‘unscented’ products may contain masking fragrances to mask the smell of other chemicals.
Manufacturers do not have to list these individual fragrant ingredients or chemicals as fragrance is considered to be a trade secret.
Many types of makeup also have a coloring agent. Any makeup with a color contains a coloring agent. These come from minerals, plants, and even animals.
This is why some people have certain reactions to different colors of makeup as they may come from a source that the user is allergic to
Ingredients can be naturally occurring or artificial, but any potential impact on our health depends mainly on the chemical compounds they are made of.

So Makeup can be Harmful?

There is a lot of controversy as hundreds of internet sites relating to potentially toxic substances present in cosmetics and the dangers they pose to the public.
These include parabens, aluminium, triclosan, formaldehyde, phthalates, and other possible chemicals that could affect someone’s skin condition or surface

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Specifically Lipstick

Now let’s go into the chemistry concepts specifically behind lipsticks.

The chemical properties of water have a major role in lipstick

Somewhat Universal Solvent: Water is used as a solvent in cosmetics and personal care products in which it dissolves many of the ingredients that impart skin benefits, such as conditioning agents and cleansing agents. It allows for addition for many ingredients in the products, and allows for them to be combined uniformly.
Water is a polar molecule with partially-positive and negative charges, it readily dissolves ions and polar molecules. It is therefore referred to as a solvent: a substance capable of dissolving other polar molecules and ionic compounds. The charges associated with these molecules form hydrogen bonds with water, surrounding the particle with water moleculesWhen ionic compounds are added to water, individual ions interact with the polar regions of the water molecules during the dissociation process, disrupting their ionic bonds.
Since many biomolecules are either polar or charged, water readily dissolves these hydrophilic compounds. Water is a poor solvent for hydrophobic molecules such as lipids. Nonpolar molecules experience hydrophobic interactions in water: the water changes its hydrogen bonding patterns around the hydrophobic molecules.
Like in the picture provided, you see how the negatively charged Cl- ion is attracting the positive sides of the water molecules
Surface Tension: Water also forms emulsions in which the oil and water components of the product are combined to form creams and lotions, this is the emulsifier, it reduces the surface tensions between the oil and water, (hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts). These are sometimes referred to as oil-in-water emulsions or as water-in-oil depending on the ratios of the oil phase and water phase.
Surface tension is the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force, due to the cohesive nature of its molecules. In other words, the cohesiveness of the oil and water particles resist each other’s external forces from their surfaces, but the emulsifier breaks this or decreases the amount of force being exerted.
Emulsifier molecules work by having a hydrophilic end or a polar end(water-loving) and hydrophobic end or a nonpolar end (water-hating). The hydrophilic end of the emulsifier molecule is attracted to the water and the hydrophobic end is attracted to the fat/oil. By vigorously mixing the emulsifier with the water and fat/oil, a stable emulsion can be made.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

This topic interests me because I hope that one day I can create my own line of skincare and makeup products. It is my goal to create a line of products that is inclusive to everyone’s needs, that is vegan, cruelty free, and has little impact on the environment. I wanted to learn more about what goes into making makeup such as what determines its shelf-life, the color in creams, powders, and eyeshadows. In addition, how certain ingredients contribute to the state of matter of creams, how they are uniform with no clumps. If you really think about it there’s chemistry behind everything in makeup. This is important because we need to learn what is in the products that we use daily, and what we put on our faces. There are certain ingredients that can harm our skin, which I also find interesting that in small portions it wouldn’t harm us.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of Fireworks

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #6

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Kristen McDonough and I am your host for episode #6 called the chemistry of Fireworks. Today I will be discussing what a firework is composed of and how they give us a colorful display in the air.

Segment 1: Introduction to Fireworks

What is a firework made of?

Fireworks are composed of 3 different components; oxidizers, fuel, and color. The components of a firework are located in an aerial shell. The shell is launched into the air with black powder. Time fuse located inside the shell which causes the explosion of the shell in the air to be delayed. Effect pellets located inside the shell determine the characteristics of the firework. Color is determined by how different elements react with the heat from the explosion.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Fireworks

Oxidizers are oxygen rich salts including potassium nitrate/perchlorate and strontium nitrate.

Nitrates (NO3-) are used for the initial upwards thrust. Not all of the oxygen gas is released which results in a slower combustion. The most common nitrate is potassium nitrate, which decomposes to potassium oxide, nitrogen gas, and oxygen gas. Chlorates (ClO3- ions) release all of the oxygen atoms in the form of oxygen gas but are highly unstable and are not commonly used in fireworks. Perchlorates (ClO4-) are often used instead. They release all of the oxygen atoms in the form of gas but are more stable. Lewis dot structure reveals that chlorates have a lone pair electron bonded to the central atom, whereas perchlorates do not, explaining the difference in stability.

The oxygen gas goes through a combination reaction with reducing agents such as sulfur and carbon otherwise known as the fuel. The fuel is a source of electrons, and in the reaction of oxygen gas and sulfur, sulfur dioxide is produced. The reaction is exothermic due to the greater energy released when the covalent bonds of the products are formed, resulting in the release of gas and heat causing the firework to explode

The color of the fireworks are determined by the metal cations in the salts in the effect pellets. Copper oxide produces blue, Strontium chloride produces red, Sodium silicate produces yellow, Calcium carbonate or nitrate produces orange, Barium acetate produces green.

Salts are used because they are easier to disperse and they’re less reactive compared to metals.

The different metals have different amounts of electrons in their outer shell. When they react with energy in the form of heat, the electrons jump from the ground state to the excited state.

The electrons release energy in the form of light when returning from the excited state to ground state, and the amount of energy they release determines the color. High energy released results in short wavelengths and a more blue violet color, whereas low energy released results in longer wavelengths and amore red orange color.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Every fourth of July my family and I watch a fireworks display on the beach and we always have a lot of fun. Most people love the joy that fireworks give, so learning the chemistry behind fireworks has allowed me to connect my favorite holiday to chemistry.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nPHegSulI_M

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qnA-rH1jwKA

http://www.scifun.org/CHEMWEEK/fireworks/Fireworks2017.htm

https://penntoday.upenn.edu/news/chemistry-behind-fireworks#:~:text=A%20standard%20firework%20has%20a%20fuel%2C%20oxidizer%2C%20and%20binder.&text=A%20chemical%20reaction%2C%20typically%20combustion,from%20one%20to%20the%20other.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of Lithium Ion Batteries

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #5

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Brian Shen/Xavier Park and we are your host for episode 5 called The Chemistry of Lithium-ion Batteries. Today we will be discussing how lithium-ion batteries work, and how their environment affects them.

Segment 1: Introduction to Lithium-ion Batteries

Introduce the episode topic

Include definitions, vocabulary, interesting background information and context

Lithium Ion batteries are used in numerous applications from mobile devices to electric cars. They are currently the highest energy density batteries that are mass produced. In the past, Nickel Metal Hydride or Lead Acid batteries were common for any application requiring rechargeable batteries.

Sounds like we’re dealing with some complex topics here. Let’s explain them a bit in case our listeners are getting overwhelmed.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Lithium-ion Batteries

Have a natural transition into an example… no need to say “segment 2”

Provide detailed explanations of the chemistry that is related to your topic.

While these batteries might seem complicated, the chemistry behind them is still based on the same concepts of electrochemistry. It’s just like an electrochemical cell with an anode and a cathode.

Lithium ions travel back and forth between the anode and cathode as the battery charges and discharges.

The cell also consists of an electrolyte solution. This solution is usually a solution of lithium salts and a solvent.

Is there any reason why they use lithium ions instead of other elements?

Since lithium ions are rather small compared to other elements, a lot of lithium can be stored in a small area which is why Li-ion batteries have such high energy densities compared to lead-acid batteries or nickel MH batteries, both larger elements.

And there’s different types of lithium-ion batteries as well, right?

(LiFePO4 batteries)

Known for extremely high charge and discharge rates due to their pool passed ion storage
Many more cycles compared to other lithium batteries
Used in some car batteries since they are able to provide the huge amount of current needed to start a car

They’re clearly quite practical, but one of the most frustrating things is when you go outside on a cold winter day and your phone battery instantly drops 20%.

Yeah, why is that?

Because the electrochemical cells rely on chemical reactions to function, it is only natural that the cold weather would hinder their ability to work.

It limits the ability for the forward reactions to take place, therefore reducing the amount of electrons transferring from the anode to the cathode.

For similar reasons, this is why your phone’s battery may seem to be restored when it eventually warms up.

Once it reaches a certain point, the chemical reactions resume taking place, thus continuing the functionality of the battery.

So now that we know that heat can help the batteries function, can heat also be detrimental?

Yes, actually. These electrochemical cells are sealed, so they are more or less closed systems in some ways. There are therefore pressures inside the cell, and we know from chemistry that heat introduced into a system tends to increase pressure because particle movement becomes more chaotic.

Oh, that’s a bit concerning, because batteries heat up by themselves during use. That explains why batteries have limits on how much current can flow through them. Usually higher capacity batteries have higher internal resistance while high current cells generally lower internal resistance. When the same amount of current is being drawn from a cell, the cell with lower IR will generate less heat and see a lower voltage drop.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

What interested you in this topic? Why is it important? Anything else you’d like to share.

Now I have to ask, why do you know all of this?

I am interested in this topic because I build my own Li-ion battery packs using individual 18650 cells. I’ve been able to create a battery inside of an ammo can that can store 2.7 kWh (1000w load for 2.7 hours). I’ve also taken cells apart to find many layers. Now I finally understand what each of those layers do and the chemistry behind it.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.science.org.au/curious/technology-future/lithium-ion-batteries

https://www.livescience.com/61334-batteries-die-cold-weather.html

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of Nitrous in Engines

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #4

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Shaan and Maharsh and we are your hosts for episode #4 called Chemistry of Nitrous in Engines Today we will be discussing how nitrous works to increase power in engines

Segment 1: Introduction to Nitrous Oxide Engines

Nitrous oxide is used in cars to help them go faster and get more power out of their engines
Commonly referred to as NOS
It is usually stored in the form of a liquid inside a cylinder
Engines are powered by fuel and the amount of air that can be compressed
More air = more power
Nitrous Oxide is a gas injected into the engine which breaks down into Oxygen and nitrogen
The oxygen molecule is then used in the combustion process of the engine
Nitrous is heavy and needed in high capacity to power an an engine so that's why you see drivers use the nitrous for a short amount of time
There are 2 main types of nitrous systems, a wet and a dry system
In a dry nitrous system, nitrous oxide is added directly into the fuel-injector and causes an increase in oxygen levels
In a wet system, N2O is added to the fuel using a special nozzle that regulates the amount of nitrous in the fuel
The wet nitrous system is more prone to backfires, or flames shooting out of the exhaust.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind N2O Engines

Chem topic 1: Combustion rxn/Exothermic rxn

Air is compressed and ignited in an engine, which drives a piston and powers the car
N2O allows for more oxygen to enter the engine, this increases the amount of fuel that can be let in
More oxygen = more fuel = more power
As the nitrous oxide decomposes and is injected, it releases nitrogen and oxygen into the engine
This means that more oxygen is present to enter the engine and become part of the combustion reaction

Chem topic 2: bonds breaking/bond strength

Energy is required to break apart bonds
The O atom in the N2O has a strong bond to the N2
Lots of heat is required to break these bonds
More heat is released when the bonds are broken
This means that the reaction is exothermic
The molecule N2O is a polar molecule that has covalent bonds

Chem topic 3: redox rxn/nitrous oxide is an oxidizing agent

Nitrous is an oxidizing agent
This means that it is reduced
Gains electrons
The reaction that takes place in the engine is a redox reaction
This means that electrons are transferred from one particle to another
The decomposition of nitrous oxide is a redox reaction and the combustion reaction is also a redox reaction

Segment 3: Personal Connections

We both watched all the Fast and the Furious movies and were interested on how nitrous increases a cars top speed
Nitrous is an important part of the franchise as it allows the racers to use it to their advantage to beat the competition
This topic will allow us to better understand the chemistry behind some of our favorite movies and moments from TV
Understanding how nitrous impacts the engine, and what makes it work, may help us to better understand certain aspects of our own cars
It's important to us because it allows us to use what we learned in chemistry and apply it to real life

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.carpart.com.au/blog/educational/how-does-nitro-boost-nitrous-oxide-work-in-cars#:~:text=The%20Chemistry%20behind%20Nitro%20Boost,average%2C%20the%20power%20output%20increases.&text=Air%20allows%20a%2012%25%20lower,to%20that%20of%20nitrous%20oxide.

https://www.carthrottle.com/post/engineering-explained-how-nos-works/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrous_oxide#Internal_combustion_engine

https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/internal-combustion-engine-basics#:~:text=In%20a%20spark%20ignition%20engine,piston%20during%20the%20power%20stroke.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of Our Bonds with Dogs

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #3

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Mea Allex and I am your host for episode #3 called The Chemistry of Our Bonds with Dogs. Today I will be discussing the science behind why we form attachments to dogs with a focus on the neurotransmitter and hormone known as oxytocin.

Segment 1: Introduction to the Molecule Oxytocin

The molecule oxytocin functions as both a hormone and neurotransmitter, and it is associated with feelings of happiness and affection. It is also known as the love hormone, and is frequently seen in both romantic and parental relationships.

However, it is also a large reason why we feel attached to our dogs. Petting our dogs, gazing at them, or even thinking about them releases oxytocin, leading to feelings of attachment.

For dogs, oxytocin functions similarly; dogs with higher levels of oxytocin tend to be more affectionate and less aggressive. As our dogs are more loving towards us, our oxytocin levels also increase in a positive feedback loop that contributes to a strong bond between the caregiver and animal.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind The Release of Oxytocin and How it Pertains to our Dogs.

Oxytocin is represented by the molecular formula C43H66N12O12S2. It is bonded covalently, meaning that the atoms share electrons. In addition to this, oxytocin molecules experience London Dispersion(LD) and dipole-dipole intermolecular forces, specifically including hydrogen bonds. Due to the strength of the hydrogen bonds between molecules, oxytocin is soluble in many liquids, including water.

Bringing it back to the topic of animals, just thinking about our dogs raises oxytocin levels. These levels increase even more through eye contact and physical contact with our dogs. So, when we gaze at a puppy and our brain recognizes we’re looking at something adorable, a signal is sent to release oxytocin.

Specifically, to release oxytocin, it must be transported from the cell body to the axon terminal and then released from there. This occurs in the hypothalamus, after the trigger of seeing, petting, or thinking about a dog.

The process begins when the membrane potential is increased, opening voltage-gated ion channels and flooding that portion of the membrane with positively charged cations. This depolarizes that portion of the membrane. In order to restore its original charge, separate voltage-gated ion channels open and cations are released from that section of the membrane.

However, releasing the cations sends them to another area of the membrane, depolarizing that section. This cycle continues until oxytocin has been successfully transported through the membrane and released, at which point the ion channels close and the oxytocin stops being released. This is virtually instantaneous, and after it is completed, we feel the effects of love and attachment to the dog.

The reason for WHY we release oxytocin upon sighting of a dog is due to their physical appearance. With their large head and eyes combined with a small mouth and nose, as well as chubby cheeks, the physicality of dogs triggers the human instinct to be as caring and protective of them as we would a young child. What is the hormone that triggers those nurturing instincts? Oxytocin.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

This exploration was especially interesting for me because I have two dogs that I adore, and I wanted to know the science behind why we as humans feel the way we do about dogs. Additionally, a significant portion of the world has at least one dog in their household, so it’s a very relevant topic that I believe many people would be interested in learning more about.

I also have a fascination with analyzing our emotions scientifically, so it was intriguing to answer the question of what happens when we see something adorable and feel attachment to it on a molecular and biological level.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/glossary/voltage-gated-ion-channel

https://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/glossary/membrane-potential

https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Book%3A_Anatomy_and_Physiology_(Boundless)/10%3A_Overview_of_the_Nervous_System/10.5%3A_Neurophysiology/10.5B%3A_Ion_Channels

https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/organ-systems/neural-synapses/v/neurotransmitter-release

https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chnt1.html

https://www.britannica.com/science/neurotransmitter-release

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/neuron-nervous-system/a/depolarization-hyperpolarization-and-action-potentials

https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/oxytocin

https://thebark.com/content/oxytocin-chemistry-between-people-and-dogs-real

https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article/43/1/4/846604

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320170

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

The Chemistry Behind Forensics

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #2

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is EMILY GREENBERG and I am your host for episode #2 called The chemistry behind forensics. Today I will be discussing the chemistry behind forensic science and crime scene investigation.

Segment 1: Introduction to forensics

Forensic science is the tests and techniques used in the detection of crime. Forensic scientists use the scientific method to solve crimes.

They collect data and evidence from crime scenes and analyze it to try to figure out the manner and the perpetrator of a crime.

Analysis of blood or fingerprints left at a crime scene are very important in identifying a victim or a suspect. Clothing fibers, ink, ash, and much more can also be used in forensics to detect and solve crimes.

Forensic science is one of the most critical aspects of the criminal justice system because it involves hard evidence and can be proven.

Forensics are so important because they can help rule out manners of death and can find suspects for different crimes.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind forensics

Chemistry is one of the most important aspects of forensics. The following methods are the most important chemical experiments that are used in forensics.

Chromatography: This is a process where chemists use heat to separate mixtures into different contents so they can determine the individual components of a mixture. There are many different types of chromatography which will be described in this episode.

TLC (thin layer chromatography) is a less complex type of chromatography.

Used to analyze inks and dyes of fibers left at a crime scene and can help a forensic scientist match a fiber to a specific company if differences between fibers are very small

Gas Chromatography is used for volatile liquids

Often used to separate and analyze blood left at a crime scene. This can determine if the victim or suspect had alcohol or drugs in their system.
Can be used to investigate cases of arson and can detect if an accelerant is used. This can be used to see whether a fire was intentional or not
Mass spectrometry is used as a detector by detecting the concentration of the substance

HPLC (High performance liquid chromatography) extracts individual components from a solution

HPLC is used for nonvolatile mixtures
A common detector for this type of chromatography is called an ultraviolet visible spectrometer
This is used for drug analysis because most pharmaceuticals have UV absorbance
Alain Baxter Case

Spectroscopy: field of chemistry that investigates spectrums created when matter interacts with electromagnetic radiation.

Substances will have certain transmittance spectrums which allows the substances to be identified

Certain types of spectroscopy are nondestructive and will be used before other destructive methods

FTIR is one of the main types of spectroscopy

infrared radiation is used to examine skin or clothing of a suspect in order to find evidence like gunpowder residue.
When the spectra of the unknown substance is created, a database can match the unknown spectra to a known spectra

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

Involves heating the substance in order to break individual bonds
Radiation in the form of light is then passed through the sample forcing the atoms to jump to a higher energy state

When collecting fingerprints, investigators use an alternate light source to find latent (invisible) fingerprints

SWGDRUG (Scientific Working Group for the Analysis of Seized Drugs) has guidelines for forensic chemists regarding the identification of unknown substances

Segment 3: Personal Connections

This topic is so important because it helps solve crimes and brings justice to criminals and victims. Forensic sciences have come a long way, and we can discover so many things about a crime just by looking at small particles left at a crime scene. I got into forensic science because I listened to True Crime podcasts, which inspired me to research this topic to discover the science behind crime investigation. I hope to one day become a forensic scientist, which is why I enjoyed researching this topic so much.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.theclassroom.com/how-does-chemistry-relate-to-forensic-science-12235684.html

https://www.azolifesciences.com/article/Analytical-Chemistry-in-Forensic-Science.aspx

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_chemistry

https://www.justice.gov/olp/forensic-science

https://www.atascientific.com.au/spectrometry/

https://www.azolifesciences.com/article/Chromatography-in-Forensic-Science.aspx

https://aboutforensics.co.uk/chromatography/

http://www.forensicsciencesimplified.org/prints/how.html

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Chemistry of Beignets

HVSPN — Thu, 17 Jun 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #1

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, we are Joe Jacobs and Kate Jackson and we are your hosts for episode #1 called The Chemistry of Beignets. Today we will be explaining the chemical process behind making beignets.

Segment 1: Introduction to Beignets

French settlers brought beignets with them as they migrated to the eastern coast of Canada in the 17th century. These settlers were then forced by the British to move and many settled in Louisiana. These settlers brought their cuisine, as well as their language, with them as they migrated south. Today, beignets are most associated with the French Quarter of New Orleans, Louisiana.

Beignets are a type of doughnut and usually covered in powdered sugar. The process of making beignets is somewhat intensive. It begins with making a dough and then allowing the dough to sit for 2 to 24 hours. Then the beignets are fried in oil and then covered with powdered sugar.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Rising, Texture, and Flavour in Beignets

So when we are making the dough, yeast and leavening agents are the foundation of baking. Without these types of ingredients, you wouldn’t be able to have bread or beignets, but you would sort of get like bricks of flour.

Leavening agents, or ingredients that make the beignets or whatever you’re making rise, participate in chemical reactions during various steps of the baking process. Yeast, for example, transforms any sugars in the dough into carbon dioxide gas and ethanol which is a type of alcohol. The carbon dioxide that is trapped in the dough expands during the rising and resting process which makes the dough increase in volume, and the alcohol produced by this fermentation reaction evaporates during the frying process. I wanted to point out that yeast is a living organism. You have to activate the yeast when you make the beignets and make sure to keep the dough at a warm room temperature in order to make the yeast work quickly, but not too quickly to increase the yeast’s sensitivity to acids in the dough and slow down the fermentation reaction. Essentially, fermentation is primarily responsible for the holes and the flavour of bread. Flavor inside the bread comes from the alcohol and other compounds produced through fermentation. Another notable reaction that occurs in the dough is aerobic respiration. This occurs in the mitochondria of the yeast cells and performs until the limiting reagent, diatomic oxygen, is used up. Then fermentation occurs, also known as anaerobic respiration. Both reactions produce carbon dioxide so they both contribute to the rise of the beignets.

Equation for fermentation: C6H12O6 (glucose) 2C2H5OH (ethanol) +2CO2 (carbon dioxide)

Equation for respiration: C6H12O6(glucose) + 6O2 (oxygen) 6CO2 (carbon dioxide)+ 6H2O (water)

In addition to these important chemical processes, one thing I found is that kneading the beignet dough adds air into the dough and speeds up the respiration process. This leads to a faster rise but less flavor because ethanol is responsible for flavour and increasing O2 in the dough only speeds up the respiration reaction. We are gonna make some beignets this weekend and for ours we will be doing a slow rise with no kneading, and this is just so that we can get the most flavor from the dough and also kenading is annoying. Kneading also develops gluten strands in the dough which can make the beignets tough which is the opposite of what we want.

For a little bit more chemistry, if we were to knead the dough, O2 would be added to the dough which would increase the rate of the respiration reaction. This is because there are many molecules of glucose in the dough and the addition of O2 molecules leads to increasing collisions between glucose and oxygen. More collisions leads to a higher rate of product formations because of a higher chance of molecules colliding with sufficient energy and the required positioning. So those are some of the important things that happen behind the scenes, and Kate is gonna talk a little bit about what happens when you actually fry the dough to make the beignets.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Caramelization

Once the dough for the beignets is ready, they are fried in oil until they are golden brown and puffed up. The golden brown aspect of the beignets will be achieved through a process called caramelization as well as the Maillard reaction.

When caramelization occurs, the maltose carbohydrate molecules, which are two glucose molecules, in the dough start to break down and rearrange themselves under heat. The process of caramelization is very complex. As the sugar appears to melt, it is actually undergoing several intricate chemical reactions.

First, sucrose inversion occurs which means sucrose breaks down into glucose and fructose. This is a hydrolysis reaction, which means that water is used to break chemical bonds. In this case, the intramolecular bond between the glucose and fructose, specifically a covalent bond called the glycosidic linkage which holds the two molecules together.Condensation occurs, where the sugars lose water and react with each other, forming difructose-anhydride. Further dehydration occurs. Molecules fragment and polymerize, producing the characteristic caramel color and browned sugar flavor associated with the process. The three main products from sucrose caramelization are the dehydration product caramelan and two polymers, carmelen and caramelin

Reaction: C12H22O11(sucrose)+ H2O C6H12O6 (fructose) + C6H12O6 (glucose)

Caramelization is a separate chemical reaction from the Maillard reaction, which is the browning process, and takes place afterwards at a higher temperature. The Maillard reaction is a chemical reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars that gives browned food its distinctive flavor. Foods that contain both carbohydrates and proteins brown from a combination of caramelisation and the Maillard reaction

Segment 3: Personal Connections

We wanted to talk about beignets because Joe and I both like to bake and find that making new foods and exploring new recipes are fun to do together. Also, we love the Princess and the Frog and Tiana makes amazing beignets in the movie. Joe is also going to Tulane next year which is in New Orleans and close to the French Quarter, so he has had beignets a few times.

I am super excited to be going to New Orleans this fall, and I feel like beignets are such a signature part of being there. They represent a mixture of different cultures and when I visited back in February this year I loved the beignets I had at Cafe du Monde so much. So I guess I just wanted to learn a little bit more about them. And hopefully when Kate and I make some this weekend they turn out just as well.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/beignets/#:~:text=Beignets%20are%20the%20official%20state%20doughnut%20of%20Louisiana.&text=French%20settlers%20brought%20beignets%20with,region%20a%20hundred%20years%20later.

https://sciencing.com/chemical-reactions-involved-baking-cake-7173041.html

https://www.appliancesonline.com.au/academy/ovens-cooking/scientific-baking-your-guide-to-chemical-reactions-in-cooking/

https://bakerbynature.com/new-orleans-style-beignets/

https://breadscience.weebly.com/fermentation.html

https://ingeniumcanada.org/sites/default/files/2019-01/education-properties-of-and-changes-in-matter-bread-eak.pdf

https://www.seriouseats.com/what-is-maillard-reaction-cooking-science

http://home.sandiego.edu/~josephprovost/Sample%20Guided%20Inquiry%20Browning%20Reactions.pdf

https://sciencenotes.org/carmelization-chemistry-why-sugar-turns-brown/

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Purdue/Purdue%3A_Chem_26200%3A_Organic_Chemistry_II_(Wenthold)/Chapter_22._Carbohydrates/22.08%3A_Disaccharides/22.08.1%3A_Sucrose_vs_High-Fructose_Corn_Syrup/Sucrose

https://www.thefreshloaf.com/node/51168/delicious-bread-thanks-cellular-respiration

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Welcome to Chemistry Connections

HVSPN — Tue, 25 May 2021 09:00:00 -0400

Chemistry Connections

Episode #0

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Nick Johnson and I am your host for episode 0 called Welcome to Chemistry Connections. Today I’ll be talking about Chemistry Connections, where it came from, and what listeners can expect.

Segment 1: Introduction to the history of Chemistry Connections

I teach AP chemistry at hvchs and this podcast is part of a class project that I've been doing for a long time.

Each episode is completely student researched, recorded, and edited.

This podcast is all about highlighting the chemistry that can be used to explain and understand our lives, the universe and almost everything.

Literally pick a topic and I can guarantee there is some chemistry at work there

Traditionally has been a research paper, but now updating to accommodate changing world and hvspn.com

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind “Chemistry Connections

Some possible topics you’ll hear about include the chemistry behind art, history, food, products, business, biology, and physics, etc.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

This is what attracted me to teaching chemistry and it’s how I like to end my ap chemistry course.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:

None

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired